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BARRIO LIFE 




EDUCATION 






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Book. 



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CfiRfRIGHT DEPOSm 



BARRIO LIFE 

AND 

BARRIO EDUCATION 



BY 
CAMILO pSIAS 

Assistant Director of Education for the Philippines 

and Author of 

"Education in the Philippines under the 

Spanish Regime " ; "Educational Methods 

and Practical Suggestions"; 

"The Philippine Readers," 

etc. 




Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

192 I 



WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

THE HOUSE OF APPLIED KNOWLEDGE 
Established, 1905, by Caspar W. Hodgson 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NeW YoRK 

2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago 



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(9^ 



CopjTight, 1921, by World Book Company 

Copyright in Great Britain 

AU rights reserved 



JAN 2\ 1922 

©CI.A653624 



PREFACE 

It is a matter of history that the first bill presented 
and approved at the first session of the Philippine 
Assembly had to do with barrio school education (1907). 
More recently, the enactment of the law appropriating 
thirty million pesos for educational extension further 
dignified the barrio school problem and gave it in- 
creased importance (1918). The extension program of 
the Bureau of Education demands barrio school exten- 
sion. The systematic development of barrio education 
is the most effective medium for increasing the percent- 
age of literacy in the Philippine Islands. It is also an 
effectual means of strengthening Filipino citizenship. 

In a country like the Philippines, where life is essen- 
tially rural, the position of the barrio teacher is one 
of great responsibility and importance. As I have 
myself lived in the midst of barrio environment and 
have had a great deal to do with the supervision of 
barrio schools, the barrio teacher has often been in my 
thoughts as a citizen and as a public servant. Not 
infrequently is he isolated, dependent almost entirely 
upon his measure of common sense and initiative for 
the solution of the many and varied problems that 
present themselves to him. The supervisor, either be- 
cause of the inadequacy of transportation or means of 
communication, or because the district under his 
supervision is too large, has not been able to give the 
amount of supervision which he knows full well the 
barrio school teacher sorely needs. It is with the idea 
of furnishing a companion volume for the teacher and 
for the supervising teacher in the Philippine school 
system that the present work has been undertaken. 



iv PREFACE 

Administrators, supervisors, and teachers can look 
into the future of barrio Hfe and barrio education with 
optimism. There is real encouragement in the achieve- 
ments in general education already attained. There is 
further encouragement in the knowledge that the school 
children of today have been instrumental in the produc- 
tion of superior gardening and agricultural products. 
There have been shown at garden exhibits, for example, 
upos 1.93 meters long, sitao beans 1.03 meters long, 
eggplants .67 meter in circumference, and some toma- 
toes weighing 20 ounces each. And surely it is inspir- 
ing to know that distributed all over the Philippines 
today there are some 5000 school gardens and over 
100,000 home gardens, and that the yearly agricultural 
production of the school children amounts to more 
than a million pesos. 

I deem it the duty of barrio school education to 
enrich and vitalize barrio life. If the present work, 
a pioneer in this field, helps bring this desirable result, 
its appearance will have been justified. 

I wish to express my gratitude for the permission 
given me to use such parts as have heretofore appeared 
in periodicals in the form of articles. I wish also to 
record my indebtedness to the teachers and super- 
visory officers who looked over the manuscript and 
offered suggestions and criticisms. 

Camilo Osias 

Manila, 1921 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Preface iii 

CBAPTEB 

I. Some Barrio School Problems 1 

Philippine Life Essentially Rural 1 

Importance of Barrio School Problem 2 

Stability of Philippine Democracy Dependent 

upon "Average '* People 5 

Occupations in Barrios 5 

The General Barrio School Problem 7 

Other Special Problems 8 

Sources of Quotations and References 9 

General Bibliography 9 

II. The Improvement of Barrio Schools 10 

Recent Progress 10 

Room for Improvement 11 

Suggested Improvements 12 

Sources of Quotations and References 24 

General Bibliography 25 

III. Education for the Barrio Child 26 

The Barrio Child's Rights 27 

Economic Standards of Living 28 

Educational Demands upon the Barrio Child 33 

Creeds Proposed 36 

The Barrio Boy's Creed 37 

The Barrio Girl's Creed 38 

Sources of Quotations and References 39 

General Bibliography 39 

IV. The Barrio Teacher and the Barrio School. . 40 

A Glimpse of Barrio Conditions 40 

The Barrio and Its Institution for Uplift . / 42 

The Place of the Barrio Teacher 42 

The Barrio Teacher's Function 43 

Teacher's Qualifications Demanded 43 

V 



vi CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB PAGE 

Shortcomings 44 

Municipal Teachers' Attainments 45 

Municipal Teachers* Salaries 46 

Service of Barrio Teacher and School to the 

Community 48 

Community Service to the School 52 

Four Propositions 52 

A Teacher's Creed 55 

Sources of Quotations and References 56 

General Bibliography 56 

V. The Barrio School Curriculum 58 

Curriculum Defined 58 

Controlling Factors 59 

The Philippine Elementary Curriculum 60 

Primary Course 61 

General Intermediate Course 62 

Farming Course 62 

Housekeeping and Household Arts Course . 63 

Ours a Living Curriculum 63 

Evolution of Our Curriculum 64 

The Barrio Curriculum and Barrio Life 67 

The Subjects and Some Guiding Principles 68 

Hygiene and Sanitation 70 

Athletics 71 

Industrial Work 72 

Sources of Quotations and References 75 

General Bibliography 75 

VI. Vocational Education 77 

Social Value of Vocational Education 78 

Barrio School Work, Vocational and Prevocational 79 

Vocational Guidance 79 

Vocational Provisions 82 

Some Reasons for Industrial Activities 85 

Main Objects 87 

Sources of Quotations and References 87 

General Bibliography 87 



CONTENTS vii 

CHAPTER PAGE 

VII. Achievements of a Practical Character. . . 88 

Sites and Buildings 88 

Physical Welfare 91 

Industrial Activities 92 

Social Aspects 99 

Thrift 102 

Sources of Quotations and References 103 

General Bibliography 103 

VIII. Some Problems of Organization, Adminis- 
tration, AND Supervision 104 

Distribution of Schools 105 

Pyramidal Organization 106 

Overcrowded Classes and Split Sessions 107 

Disadvantages of Split Sessions 108 

Promotion, Retardation, Elimination, and Ac- 
celeration 110 

A Few Administrative and Supervisory Problems . . Ill 

Sources of Quotations and References 113 

General Bibliography 113 

IX. Standardizing Barrio Schools 114 

Ends Sought in Standardizing 114 

Some Precedents in Standardizing 115 

Philippine Experience 118 

Form for Inspection and Supervision 119 

Proposed Requirements for Standardizing Barrio 

Schools 122 

Tentative Form for Standardizing Barrio Schools . . 124 

Sources of Quotations and References 128 

General Bibliography 128 

X. Vitalizing Agencies of Barrio Life 129 

Denmark's Example: An Inspiration 129 

Vitalized Schools 130 

Gardening 1^1 

Agricultural Clubs 1^1 

Fruit Trees and Nurseries 132 



viii CONTENTS 

CHAPTEB 



PAGB 



Food-production Campaign I34 

Special Days I35 

Civico-educational Lectures 136 

Social and Literary Activities 137 

Libraries and Reading Circles 138 

Adult Schools 138 

Decoration and Art 139 

Conclusion and Appeal 139 

Sources of Quotations and References 141 

General Bibliography 141 

Appendixes 143 

A. Legislative Act for Extension of Free Ele- 

mental Instruction to All Children of School 

Age 143 

B. Extracts from New Land Law Relative to 

Securing of Homesteads 145 

C. Saving and Investing 149 

D. Agricultural Education Bill 164 

E. Barrio School Sanitation 170 

Index 173 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

A concrete one-room barrio school building Frontispiece 

OPPOSITE PAGE 

A temporary barrio school building 28 

School garden at Lingsat, barrio of San Fernando, Union ... 28 

A permanent barrio school building 92 

A barrio schoolhouse built from voluntary contributions of 

barrio people 92 

A typical barrio school garden 132 

A boy with his poultry project 132 



IS 



BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO 
EDUCATION 

CHAPTER ONE 

Some Barrio School Problems 

"No rural population has yet been able permanently 
to maintain itself against the lure of the town or the 
city. Each civilization at one stage of its develop- 
ment comprises a large proportion of rural people. 
But the urban movement soon begins, and continues 
until all are living in villages, towns, and cities. Such 
has been the movement of population in all the older 
countries of high industrial development, as England, 
France, and Germany. A similar movement is at 
present going on rapidly in the United States." (l) 

PHILIPPINE LIFE ESSENTIALLY RURAL 

Outside of the City of Manila and perhaps Cebu, 
Iloilo, and a few other large centers of population, 
life in the Philippine Islands is essentially rural. At 
the time of the publication of the 1903 Census of the 
Philippine Islands, there were in the Islands about 
13,400 barrios, which may be regarded as the equiva- 
lent of villages.^ "In estimating this number, those 

1 According to the Census of 1918 there were in that year 16,296 barrios, 
distributed among the different provinces as follows: 
Abra, 159 Bukidnon, 144 Cotabato, 218 

Agusan, 101 Bulacan, 371 Davao, 236 

Albay, 486 Cagayan, 493 Hocos Norte, 361 

Antique, 321 Camarines Norte, 132 Ilocos Sur, 441 

Bataan, 43 Camarines Sur, 426 Iloilo, 1310 

Batanes, 19 Capiz, 510 Isabela, 249 

Batangas, 552 Cavite, 171 Laguna, 581 

Bohol, 460 Cebu, 880 Lanao, 283 

1 



2 BARRIO LIFE AND FARRIO EDUCATION 

barrios which are closely adjacent to one another so 
that several of them form practically one village or 
town are added together; thus the 23 barrios of Cebu 
which are urban and are close together have been 
counted collectively as the City of Cebu. In a number 
of cases the poblacion consists of a number of adja- 
cent urban barrios, and these have been added to- 
gether to form the village or town, to which is given 
the name of the municipality." (2) 

In 1903 nearly one third of all the 13,400 barrios of 
the archipelago contained less than 200 inhabitants 
each, and about three fifths contained less than 400 
each. The barrios of less than 600 inhabitants each 
formed nearly three fourths of all the barrios of the 
Philippines. Almost one fourth of the population was 
found in barrios of less than 400 inhabitants each, 
and about three fifths in barrios of less than 1000 
inhabitants each. Only 4 per cent of all the popula- 
tion was found in towns of more than 5000 inhabi- 
tants each, and between 10 and 11 per cent in towns 
of more than 3000 inhabitants each. There were but 
four towns in the Islands which exceeded 10,000 in- 
habitants each and 35 which exceeded 5000. The 
average size of the barrio in different provinces varied 
greatly. In 1903 the smallest average village was 
found in the comandancia of Dapitan, with 229 in- 
habitants. (3) 

Leyte, 969 Palawan, 132 Surigao, 146 

Mindoro, 108 Pampanga, 410 Tarlac, 262 

Misamis, 186 Pangasinan, 809 Tayabas, 763 

Mt. Province, 563 Rizal, 203 Union, 354 

Nueva Ecija, 223 Romblon, 138 Zambales, 113 

Nueva Vizcaya, 153 Samar, 522 Zamboanga, 43 

Occidental Negros, 442 Sorsogon, 384 

Oriental Negros, 327 Sulu, 99 



SOME BARRIO SCHOOL PROBLEMS 3 

IMPORTANCE OF BABRIO SCHOOL PROBLEM 

In the United States, Betts states that "in the 
rural school is found the most important and puzzling 
educational problem of the present day." In the 
Philippine Islands the movement toward urban cen- 
ters has not as yet gone very far, and this is the oppor- 
tune time to discuss the problems connected with barrio 
life and barrio education in order that proper meas- 
ures may be taken to enrich and vitalize the life and 
education of the barrio population and in order that 
the undesirable urbanization of our barrio communities 
may be partly checked, or at least retarded. 

In our scheme of education the barrio communities 
have received their share of attention. Even the more 
backward tribes were not wholly neglected, as is 
proved by the presence of settlement farm schools and 
other schools among the Negritos, Mangyans, Moros, 
and other less advanced inhabitants. The Filipino 
people have given proofs of their sense of the impor- 
tance of the barrio school problem. The first Philip- 
pine Assembly consisting entirely of Filipinos approved 
for its first bill one that aided the construction of 
schools in barrio communities. That historic docu- 
ment is embodied in Act No. 1801, which is as follows: 

No. 1801. An Act providing for an appropriation of 
one million pesos for the construction of schools in the 
barrios under certain conditions. 

By authority of the United States, be it enacted by 
the Philippine Legislature that : 

Section 1. There is hereby appropriated, out of any 
funds in the Insular Treasury not otherwise appropriated, 
for the construction of schoolhouses of strong materials 
in the barrios, the sum of one million pesos, from which 



BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

there shall be available for expenditure on the first day 
of January, nineteen hundred and eight, the sum of two 
hundred and fifty thousand pesos, and an additional two 
hundred and fifty thousand pesos shall likewise be avail- 
able for expenditure on the first day of January of each 
of the three years immediately following thereafter, under 
the following conditions : 

(a) All barrios belonging to a municipality that shall 
guarantee a daily attendance in their school of not less 
than sixty pupils, duly certified to by the Division Super- 
intendent of Schools and by the supervising teacher of the 
schools of the municipality, shall have the right or option 
to participate in the funds appropriated by this Act for 
the purpose indicated: provided, however. That the sum 
shall not exceed in each case four thousand pesos. 

(b) The municipality, either by making an appropri- 
ation from its funds or by means of voluntary contri- 
bution of funds, materials, or labor, shall contribute a 
sum not less than fifty per centum of the total amount 
which may be granted in accordance with this Act, and 
shall forward the application of the municipal council 
through the provincial board to the Secretary of Public 
Instruction, who shall have charge of, and approve the 
distribution of, said funds. 

(c) The buildings above mentioned shall be erected 
only upon lands of the exclusive ownership of the mu- 
nicipality, or which shall be donated for such end: Pro- 
vided, however. That the title must be in each case regis- 
tered in the Court of Land Registration, but the Secretary 
of Public Instruction may authorize the beginning of the 
construction work upon the filing of the application for 
the registration in the said Court of Land Registration: 
And provided further. That the drawing up of the plans 
and specifications and the execution of the work, and 
payment for the latter, shall be carried out in accordance 
with the laws and the regulations now in force. 

Sec. 2. All unexpended balance, after the completion 
of any of the works authorized by this Act, shall at once 
be covered into the Insular Treasury to the credit of this 



SOME BARRIO SCHOOL PROBLEMS 5 

appropriation and shall not be withdrawn from it nor 
expended except for the purpose herein indicated. 

Sec. 3. This Act shall take effect on its passage. 

(Enacted, December 20, 1907.) 

The Act above quoted was amended by Act No. 
1914 and again by Act 1974. On February 2, 1911, 
Act No. 2029 was enacted, appropriating the sum of 
one million pesos for the construction of school build- 
ings in the municipalities and barrios of the Philippine 
Islands under the same conditions as those prescribed 
in Act No. 1801, with the exception that provisions 
were made for a maximum allotment of P5000 for a 
single project and for a guaranteed attendance of 40 
pupils. 

STABILITY OF PHILIPPINE DEMOCRACY DEPENDENT UPON 
"average" PEOPLE 

The passage of the Acts above mentioned plus the 
constant recognition of the importance of barrio school 
education are proofs positive that the leaders who have 
to do with the future of this country are aware that 
the stability of democracy here in these Islands de- 
pends in a great measure upon the character and 
intelligence of the average people. The people who 
live in the modest homes of bamboo and nipa, the 
sober and industrious dwellers in more or less rural 
communities who compose the greater part of the 
Philippine population, those of the middle class, intel- 
ligent, happy, and prosperous, constitute the genuine 
strength of the Filipino people. 

OCCUPATIONS IN BARRIOS 

The people living in the barrios are engaged in 
various occupations. Some attend to household indus- 



6 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

tries; some busy themselves with poultry or raising 
other domestic animals; and others devote part of 
their time to fishing, trading, etc. The one occupation 
that is well-nigh universal, however, is agriculture. 

In 1903 ^ there were in the Philippine Islands 815,453 
farms covering an area of 2,827,704 hectares, of which 
1,298,845 hectares were cultivated and 1,528,859 were 
uncultivated. These 815,453 farms and other parcels 
of land used for agriculture, classified by tenure and 
color of occupants, were distributed as follows: 778 
to the white population, 308 to the mixed population, 
813,382 to the brown population, 959 to the yellow 
population, while 26 farms were unknown. Classified 
by size and tenure, 658,543 of these same farms and 
other parcels of land used for agriculture belonged to 
owners, 14,403 to cash tenants, 132,444 to share ten- 
ants, 1233 to labor tenants, and 8830 were without 
rental. (4) 

It is thus quite apparent that it is necessary to give 
barrio school education an economic character in addi- 
tion to the traditional features of school work, so that 
it may be adjusted to the social and industrial condi- 
tions of the people living in barrio communities. This 

* Comparing the total number of farms in 1918 with that given in the 
Census of 1903, it appears that 1,955,276 farms were enumerated in 1918, 
while only 815,453 farms were registered in 1903. As regards the area 
under cultivation, the statistics of 1918 show 2,415,778 hectares, as against 
1,298,845 in the Census of 1903. 

The average area of farms in 1918 was 2.34 hectares as against 3.47 
hectares in 1903, which shows that in 1918 there was a greater division of 
property. 

Out of the 1,955,276 farms, 1,946,579 were owned by Filipinos, 2678 by 
Americans, 950 by Europeans, 1612 by Asiatics, and 3457 by other nationali- 
ties. In the Census of 1918, any piece of land not less than 200 square 
meters devoted to agriculture is considered as a "farm," while in the Census 
of 1903 any agricultural holding regardless of size was considered as a 
"farm." 1918 Census, Vol. I, p. 45. 



SOME BARRIO SCHOOL PROBLEMS 7 

is one of the great problems of barrio school instruc- 
tion — to educate the children for the farm and barrio 
life rather than away from the farm and barrio life. 

THE GENERAL BARRIO SCHOOL PROBLEM 

The barrio school has the same general problem 
that is common to every school; namely, to assist in 
the general uplift of the individual and of society in 
order that the citizens individually and collectively 
may secure the highest and fullest measure of freedom, 
happiness, and efficiency possible. Barrio school edu- 
cation, like every other school education, must aim 
"to preserve, improve, and transmit the resources of 
society — to develop in each individual general and 
specific social efficiency." ^'General social efficiency 
means social intelligence and the power to deal effec- 
tively with social problems. Specific social efficiency 
means vocational efficiency — efficiency in a particu- 
lar calling." (5) 

Barrio school education should train for freedom, [/ 
making out of every pupil, if possible, an emancipated 
being and thus rendering him truly free — physically, 
morally, intellectually, and economically. An individ- 
ual physically weak is not truly free. A person who 
is a moral wreck is a slave. An ignorant citizen is not 
intellectually free, nor is one dependent for his sup- 
port economically free. Education that is adequate 
strives to give this threefold freedom, moral, intellec- 
tual, and physical. 

Barrio school education must strive to instill happi- 
ness in the men and women who are products of the 
barrio schools. They should be appreciative of the 
best interests — social, civic, aesthetic, etc. Tastes 



8 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

and attitudes should be developed in order that the 
better nature of every citizen may be developed. 

Barrio school education will seek to develop indi- 
vidual and social efficiency. From the barrio school 
will come men and women who are intelligent, self- 
supporting, and useful. Educated citizens should not 
only know, but should be able to earn their means of 
livelihood. More important than earning one's liveli- 
hood, however, is living a good life. 

OTHER SPECIAL PROBLEMS 

The general barrio school problem has been briefly 
discussed. Many special problems connected with 
barrio life and barrio education present themselves. 
The barrio school has not only the problem common 
to all schools but also problems which are special, 
making it different from other types of schools. These 
special problems are conditioned by the needs, inter- 
ests, aspirations, and ideals of the individuals and the 
community that support the school. In many respects, 
therefore, the barrio school must be somewhat differ- 
ent from the town or city school. "In its organiza- 
tion, its curriculum, and its spirit it must be adapted 
to the requirements of the rural community. For, 
while many pupils from the rural schools ultimately 
follow other occupations than farming, yet the pri- 
mary function of the rural school is to educate for the 
life of the farm." (6) 

Some of the problems connected with barrio life 
and barrio education may be enumerated as follows ; 

Improvement of Barrio Schools 

Education for the Barrio Child 

The Barrio Teacher and the Barrio School 



SOME BARRIO SCHOOL PROBLEMS 9 

Barrio School Curriculum 

Vocational Education 

Achievements of Practical Value 

Problems of Organization, Administration, and Su- 
pervision 

Standardizing Barrio Schools 

VitaHzing Agencies of Barrio Life 

Subsequent discussions will deal directly and indi- 
rectly with these and other problems related to barrio 
life and barrio education. 

Sources of Quotations and References 

Note. The numbers refer to the numbers in parentheses in 
the body of the text. 

(1) Betts, G. H. New Ideals in Rural Schools, p. ix. 

(2) Philippine Census, Vol. II, p. 35. 

(3) Philippine Census, Vol. II, pp. 36, 38. 

(4) Philippine Census, Vol. IV, Tables 1, 3, 4, and 5, pp. 250-279. 

(5) Hanus, Paul. School Efficiency. 

(6) Betts, G. H. New Ideals in Rural Schools, pp. 5-6. 

General Bibliography 

1. Le Roy, James. Philippine Life in Town and Country, 

2. Philippine Census, 1903. 

3. Kern, O. J. Among Country Schools. 

4. Betts, G. H. New Ideals in Rural Schools. 

5. Betts, G. H., and Hall, O. E. Better Rural Schools. 

6. Cubberley, E. p. Rural Life and Education. 

7. The Improvement of Rural Schools. 

8. Reports of the Commissioner of Education. 

9. Monroe, Paul. Cyclopedia of Education, 



CHAPTER TWO 

The Improvement of Barrio Schools 

Barrio education antedates the formal establishment 
of public barrio schools. Throughout the period of 
Philippine history, the Filipino people have shown a 
praiseworthy interest in education. Either under the 
immediate tutorship of parents or under the charge 
of private teachers the elementary instruction of Fili- 
pino children was undertaken long before the Royal 
Decree of 1863, establishing a plan of primary instruc- 
tion in the Philippines, provided that "there shall 
be in each town ... at least one school of primary 
instruction for males and another for females." (l) 
Even in the midst of poverty many native chil- 
dren were given schooling, not infrequently at the 
sacrifice of almost the very necessities of life. It was 
natural, therefore, that barrio schools be provided for 
in the Act No. 74 of the Philippine Commission creat- 
ing the Bureau of Education and insuring to the people 
a system of free public schools in the Philippine 
Islands. (2) 

RECENT PROGRESS 

Since the establishment of the public school system 
under the American administration, marked progress 
has been made. In 1898, at the coming of the Ameri- 
cans, there were 2160 public primary schools in the 
Islands. Under the present regime the number of 
public primary schools was 3924 for 1913, 3851 for 
1914, 3994 for 1915, 4143 for 1916, 4288 for 1917, 
4276 for 1918, 4412 for 1919, and 5280 for 1920. The 
greater number of these are barrio schools. It might 
be added that the number of intermediate schools was 

10 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF BARRIO SCHOOLS 11 

278 in 1913, 309 in 1914, 350 in 1915, 351 in 1916, 368 
in 1917, 423 in 1918, 501 in 1919, and 614 in 1920, and 
that the number of secondary schools was 44 in 1913, 
41 in 1914, 42 in 1915, 44 in 1916, 46 in 1917, 48 in 
1918, 50 in 1919 and 1920. The total annual enroll- 
ment in these schools was 606,597 for 1915, 681,588 
for 1919, and 791,626 for 1920. (3) The greatest con- 
cern is the welfare of the primary pupils. The poHcy 
of the Bureau of Education has been to continue, and 
if possible increase, the number of primary schools, 
and to "authorize the establishment of intermediate 
and secondary schools only where the demand was 
strong and the chances for offering efficient instruc- 
tion were good." (4) 

Another sign of the popularity of the schools is 
the fact that annually the number seeking admittance 
is greater than the number which can be accommo- 
dated. The attitude of the barrio people toward the 
barrio schools on the whole has been one of willing 
cooperation. In some cases school sites have been 
donated, or paid for by the people themselves. Several 
buildings have been constructed without cost to the 
municipal treasury — materials and labor have been 
furnished free. In a few places there are standard 
buildings on standard school sites. The course of 
study for barrio schools is better defined now than it 
has ever been. The teachers are now a little better 
prepared, and consequently instruction has improved. 

ROOM FOR IMPROVEMENT 

In spite of these and other signs of progress, how- 
ever, the barrio schools are still nearer to zero than 
one hundred per cent. There are still too many barrio 



12 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

children housed in unsuitable buildings; too many 
buildings without proper equipment; too many schools 
without sites or with inadequate sites; too many 
structures that cannot meet the demands of modern 
sanitation; too many one-room schools that could 
better be managed if consolidated; too many over- 
crowded classes or classes not properly organized; 
too much poor instruction or inadequate interpre- 
tation of the curriculum; too wide scattering of 
barrio schools in large districts, making supervision 
difficult; and too httle money to carry on the work 
efficiently. Surely there is room, much room, for 
improvement. What some of these improvements 
may be we shall now proceed to consider. 

SUGGESTED IMPROVEMENTS 

1. Better buildings. At the close of December, 1915, 
for the 4386 schools in operation there were only 723 
permanent buildings, 383 semi-permanent buildings, 
and 955 temporary buildings. (5) Of the permanent 
buildings 344 were of standard Bureau of Education 
plan. It is very evident that a large majority of the 
schools in the Islands are inadequately housed. Vari- 
ous laws, such as Act No. 1275, Act No. 1580, Act 
No. 1688, Act No. 1801, Act No. 1914, Act No. 1974, 
Act No. 1954, Act No. 1961, Act No. 1988, Act 
No. 1994, Act No. 2029, and Act No. 2059, have 
been enacted that are favorable to schoolhouse con- 
struction, but the funds made available have been 
insufficient to carry out any considerable part of the 
building program. (6) 

There is need of further legislation and greater 
cooperation to push the building program. More and 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF BARRIO SCHOOLS 13 

better buildings are imperative. Permanent school- 
houses should be preferred. Speaking of substantial 
and permanent structures one Director of Education 
quite appropriately said: 

There is a sense of permanency about them which is 
of particular value; typhoons come and go, and while 
other buildings in the vicinity are swept to the ground, 
the schoolhouse of such permanent material remains. 
The effect upon pupils and people is quite different in 
cases where the schoolhouse is destroyed by every strong 
wind. Furthermore, there is a great deal of time lost 
from school work when temporary buildings are blown 
down. It generally happens that a great number of 
buildings are destroyed in the vicinity, and that it will 
be impossible to secure at once the labor to reconstruct 
the schoolhouse. The loss of a few months is a serious 
thing in the school life of the pupil. It often happens 
that, as a temporary expedient, school is again started 
in some other building which is generally entirely in- 
adequate for school purposes. Furthermore, in the 
concrete building provision can be made for proper in- 
terior equipment and arrangement and for the protection 
of school supplies. Again, the permanent building lends 
itself to use as a social center in a way which a temporary- 
building cannot. The people look to it with a pride which 
is lacking where buildings are of poor temporary con- 
struction. If there were any way of assigning a money 
value to such advantages as these, it would be clearly 
shown that the considerable sums spent in permanent 
construction constitute a far better investment than the 
smaller sums which are repeatedly invested in temporary 
buildings. (7) 

In order to help solve the problem of housing the 
barrio schools, it would seem desirable (1) to carry out 
the "unit" system of construction whereby additions 
may be made without injury to the original structure. 



14 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

(2) to have foresight in setting aside a definite sum 
per year in the municipal presupuestos, or budgets, for 
building purposes, (3) to maintain a creditable stand- 
ard for temporary buildings, and (4) to require the 
provision of a fairly decent and adequate temporary 
building before opening any new barrio school. 

2. More adequate school sites. During the school 
year 1915-16, 3994 municipal primary public schools 
were in operation. For the same period there were 
2174 sites, of which 71 were provincial sites, 704 were 
municipal central sites, and 1399 were municipal barrio 
sites. (8) Of these sites about one third are standard 
in size and adequate for the school purposes, the stand- 
ard being one-half hectare for a rural school and 
one hectare for a central school. It is deemed impor- 
tant that the school site be ample " (1) to display the 
building properly, (2) to provide for additional build- 
ings to accommodate industrial activities or increase 
in attendance, (3) to provide for gardening, (4) to 
provide grounds for baseball and other games, and 
(5) to make possible the placing of the building at a 
distance from other houses, thus allowing a free cir- 
culation of air, the maintenance of sanitary condi- 
tions about the schools, and freedom from noises 
which may disturb school work." (9) 

From the statistics just given, it is obvious that 
many schools are without sites and that some have 
inadequate sites. It is therefore necessary to put 
forth an effort for a period of years to secure more 
first-class sites. A first-class site is one which (1) has 
a minimum area of one-half hectare for every 200 
pupils of the annual enrollment, or fraction thereof, 
up to 2 hectares for 800 pupils or more, (2) is well 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF BARRIO SCHOOLS 15 

located and easily accessible, (3) is well drained and 
sanitary, (4) allows the proper laying out of athletic 
field and playground, and (5) has soil suitable for 
gardening and agricultural activities. (10) 

It will be of assistance in securing more adequate 
school sites (1) if we put forth effort to develop public 
opinion favorable for acquisition of standard school 
sites and the erection of permanent schoolhouses, (2) if 
we make it widely known that nothing can be done in 
the way of securing insular aid for permanent school 
building, unless there is adequate school site, and 
(3) if we open no new school unless there is an ade- 
quate school site provided. (11) 

3. Better equipment. In barrio schools today hun- 
dreds of children sit on benches without backs or at 
desks not properly adjusted. Some even have to sit 
on the floor. There are classrooms without a table 
or a chair for the teacher or an aparador for objects, 
materials, books, and supplies. Concerted action is 
needed to secure sufficient desks properly adjusted to 
the size of pupils; to furnish each classroom with a 
chair, a table, and an aparador; and to have a set of 
the pictures prescribed in the bulletin on Good Man- 
ners and Right Conduct framed in wood and covered 
with glass. Bulletin boards and waste baskets should 
be included in the list of equipment to be provided. 
In addition to these, provision must be made for 
tools needed in gardening and school-ground improve- 
ment, equipment for domestic science, tools and sup- 
plies for woodworking, bamboo and rattan furniture, 
or other industrial courses offered. While the list is 
by no means complete, to have these things alone will 
do much to improve our barrio schools. (12) 



16 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

4. Better sanitation. It should be needless to men- 
tion that buildings used for school purposes ought to 
be spacious and sanitary. There should be proper 
lighting and ventilation. At least two sanitary out- 
houses, one for boys and another for girls, should be 
found in every standard school site. Flush closets and 
permanent outhouses are, of course, the best. Where 
it is not possible to have these, there must at least be 
semi-permanent or temporary buildings of the "pail" 
or "pit" type. In several provinces very satisfactory 
movable temporary outhouses have been devised. It 
will add to the beauty of the grounds if these acces- 
sory buildings are screened with climbing vines or 
judiciously planted trees. 

A sanitary water tank or jar with good, clean water, 
preferably boiled water, should be found in every 
barrio school. Sanitary drinking cups or individual 
cups should be used. Practical lessons in hygiene and 
sanitation are essential among barrio pupils, who 
should take a part in the activities to clean and beau- 
tify the school and premises. "One of the saddest 
things I saw," said Booker T. Washington, "was a 
young man . . . sitting down in a one-room cabin, 
with grease on his clothing, filth all around him, and 
weeds in the yard and garden, engaged in studying a 
French grammar." (13) It would indeed be the 
height of folly to turn out barrio school children 
learned in book knowledge but ignorant in good 
living. 

5. Consolidation. Partly due to the natural desire 
of the people to have a school close to their homes, 
a number of one-room schools have been established. 
For years to come many of these schools in isolated 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF BARRIO SCHOOLS 17 

hamlets will be a necessity. It is, nevertheless, true 
that much loss in school eflSciency results from the 
existence of an unnecessarily large number of separate 
httle schools which could well be combined into larger 
schools in more central locations. The consoHdation 
movement, begun in Massachusetts, after the middle 
of the nineteenth century, has been a great factor in 
the improvement of the American rural schools during 
the last two decades, especially in the states of the 
Middle West. History, it seems, repeats itself not 
only from age to age but from country to country. 
Now that the barrio schools in the Philippines are 
more or less in the formative stage, it would be the 
part of wisdom for administrative and supervisory 
officers to have an eye to consolidation. The idea of 
consolidation should be borne in mind in the estab- 
lishment of barrio schools in the future, especially in 
fast-growing communities or in localities with poten- 
tial possibilities of growth. The establishment of in- 
termediate schools or high schools, if, indeed, it is 
not now a problem, will surely become one in the 
future. Intelligent foresight is necessary in the choice 
of location for barrio schools, therefore. The consoli- 
dation idea should furnish a key to the question, 
making possible their future expansion. 

6. Organization and supervision. Barrio schools of 
two grades and even of three grades under one teacher 
are not unknown. There are barrio schools where one 
teacher has charge of about 100 pupils. There are also 
barrio schools with classes organized under the "split 
session" plan. Under this arrangement a first or 
second grade class comes in the morning from 7 : 30 
to 10: 00 under one teacher and another class of third 



18 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

or fourth grade comes the rest of the morning and in 
the afternoon under the same teacher. It is needless 
to say that under these conditions the best work can- 
not be done. Better organization, with the size of 
classes regulated, is obviously necessary. We shall 
not at this time dwell at length on organization. We 
merely wish to quote what a California superintend- 
ent said: "We do not beheve that it is possible for a 
teacher to face forty different little personalities and 
individualities, and assume the responsibility for their 
mental, spiritual, and physical development, and do 
it successfully. It is beyond human power." (14) 

Many of the barrio schools are now so scattered, 
and some of the supervising districts are so large, that 
effective supervision is difficult, if not well-nigh im- 
possible. As a result much of what goes on in the 
name of supervision is nothing but inspection. Better 
organization and better supervision are two among 
the great needs of barrio schools. These will be taken 
up more fully under the general discussion of the 
problems of organization, administration, and super- 
vision (pages 104-113). 

7. Better instruction. Mention has been made of 
the fact that the instruction in the barrio schools is 
superior to what it was a few years ago. Nevertheless, 
much haphazard, aimless, and ineffective classroom 
instruction still goes on and will go on perhaps for 
several years to come. Much as we may be conscious 
of the fact that schools exist primarily that teaching 
may go on, the best teaching can hardly be expected 
with the present poor buildings and sites in many of 
the barrio schools, the poor equipment, the isolation 
of some schools, the overcrowded classes, the low 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF BARRIO SCHOOLS 19 

salaries paid and the consequent lack of thoroughly 
trained corps of teachers. The improvement of in- 
struction is vitally connected with the question of 
better teachers, and the securing of better teachers 
is in turn conditioned largely by the question of 
better pay. 

8. Better interpretation of the curriculum. A sepa- 
rate discussion is to be devoted to the barrio school 
curriculum in its various aspects (pages 58 to 76); 
but we wish to touch here upon one phase — that 
which is related or should be related to the soil, plant 
life, and animal life which are the chief sources of 
wealth in the barrio and, for that matter, in the 
islands. 

The chief business of the country is farming, which 
deals with these. The economic needs of the country and 
the world must be met by the wise and intelligent handling 
of these. The efficiency of farming depends upon a 
knowledge of them and the way to handle them most 
intelligently and profitably. Yet such has been and is 
now the inefficiency of rural education that the farmers 
who live closest to these greatest sources of wealth often 
know least about them and get least out of them. The 
majority of these farmers do not get enough out of them 
to supply the bare necessities of the meagerest life, and 
have nothing left to contribute to the wealth of the com- 
munity or to supply good schools, good churches, and 
other necessaries for the intellectual, social, and spiritual 
needs of the community. Should not country boys be 
taught in country schools, by teachers prepared to teach 
them, the simple principles of the conservation, the 
fertilization, the tillage, and the drainage of soils, and 
their practical application; a knowledge of plants and 
plant life and their adaptation to soil and environment, 
how to grow them and how to handle them most profit- 
ably; of animals, how to feed them, how to care for them, 



20 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

how best to utilize them? Health, food, raiment, and 
shelter — these are the elemental needs of life. They are 
more easily supplied in the country than anywhere else, 
and yet, on the whole, more poorly supplied there. How 
much does the country teacher know about either? Should 
not sanitation, food selection and preparation, canning, 
sewing, dressmaking, millinery, homemaking, and deco- 
ration have a place in the preparation of the country 
teacher and in the curriculum of the country school for 
country girls? (15) 

The opportunities of barrio schools to serve the 
agricultural interests of barrio communities are legion. 
Gardening is one of the industrial courses in the 
course of study. Garden days, fruit-tree planting. 
Arbor Days, agricultural clubs, cooking — these are 
among the agencies for agricultural betterment. Barrio 
school education will become more efficient if it is 
instrumental in enriching barrio life. School officials 
should consciously influence barrio communities to 
utilize elementary science and intelligent industry as 
factors in prosperity. When this is done effectively, 
the time will not be far distant when in substance 
there may be said of the Philippines what one writer 
said of the United States in the following hopeful 
words : 

Immobile masses of men used to die of famine while a 
few hundred miles away crops rotted on the ground for 
lack of transportation. Famine no longer threatens a 
country where railroads carry freight. United States 
laboratories and food stations are evolving cereals and 
condensing nutriment in their tissues. Government ex- 
perts are studying food for men and cattle on the Russian 
steppes and in half -forgotten oases of the Sahara. Mr. 
Luther Burbank hopes to overcome nature in the deserts 
of the West with the science-born thornless cactus; he 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF BARRIO SCHOOLS 21 

doubles the size of fruits and brings new ones into being, 
in a few years outdistancing the pace of thousands of 
generations of his "master" — nature. The Secretary of 
Agriculture recently declared that serious crop failures will 
occur no more. Agriculture has become a science, our 
common foods grow in conquered habitats, the desert is 
sown, and waste land is made fertile. Unseasonable frosts, 
prolonged droughts and rains, torrid heat, insect pests, 
plant disease — all these familiar menaces he believes will 
soon cease to threaten the farmer. Never again will 
widespread famine, plagues, scarcity prices, or commercial 
panics be the result of defective husbandry. Stable, 
progressive farming controls the terror, disorder, and 
devastation of earlier times. A new agriculture means a 
new civilization. Physicians and sanitarians tell us that 
the recent yellow fever epidemic was the last which shall 
find foothold in the United States. Their knowledge of 
its causes gives them power to subdue it. To recall the 
horror that has accompanied the plague since history 
began is to foresee what a change in social traditions and 
industrial development this revolution alone will make. 
The food, housing, and general hygiene of the workers at 
Panama, for instance, can be cared for so scientifically 
that the canal will be dug under conditions possible fifty 
years ago only north of the frost line. (16) 

9. More adequate funds. We come now to the 
most important of the improvements proposed; 
namely, the provision of more adequate funds. This 
is basic. Practically every other improvement here 
suggested depends upon it. There must be a very 
material increase in the funds available for school 
purposes, and the increased funds must be secured 
from higher taxation. The doctrine of discontent 
must be preached throughout the land. We must not 
cheapen education. The people, however, ought to 
be willing to make the sacrifice. More money must 



22 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

be forthcoming, and it must be expended in a wiser 
and more sensible way. True economy is not merely 
reducing expenses. Rather it means securing more 
money and utilizing it in a better way. 

That our funds for general educational purposes, and 
particularly for barrio school purposes, are very in- 
adequate every educated citizen knows. Many of our 
children are refused admission; many of the teachers 
are poorly trained, and the number employed is insuf- 
ficient; buildings are inadequate; more sites are not 
secured ; proper equipment is lacking — these and 
many other deficiencies are due to lack of adequate 
funds. 

What are now the sources of revenue for the sup- 
port of municipal schools — central and rural .^^ In the 
regularly organized provinces municipal school rev- 
enues are derived chiefly from the following sources: 
(1) A tax of one fourth of 1 per cent on the assessed 
value of real property; (2) 10 per cent of internal 
revenue collections divided among the various munici- 
palities of the Islands on the basis of population as 
shown by the Census of 1903; and (3) transfers from 
general funds to school funds. The new Administra- 
tive Code provides: 

There shall be maintained in the treasury of every 
municipality a special fund to be known as the school fund, 
into which shall be paid all moneys accruing thereto by 
law or by appropriation from the municipal general fund. 
Said fund shall be available exclusively for the mainte- 
nance of public schools, including the construction, 
purchase, repair, and equipment of school buildings, the 
purchase of land therefor, the payment of teachers and 
incidental expenses, and other lawful school purposes of 
the municipality. (17) 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF BARRIO SCHOOLS 23 

Regarding the division of proceeds between prov- 
inces and municipalities, the following provisions 
govern: 

The proceeds of the real-property tax shall be applied 
to the use and benefit of the respective provinces and 
municipalities wherein the property liable to such tax is 
situated. 

The share of a province in said tax shall be levied by 
the provincial board thereof, whose duty it shall be, on 
or before the thirty-first day of December of each year, 
to fix by resolution an uniform rate of taxation for the 
succeeding year, in an amount not less than one eighth 
nor more than three eighths of one per centum. 

The share of a municipality shall in the same manner 
be levied by ordinance of the municipal council thereof 
in an amount not less than one fourth nor more than one 
half of one per centum. (18) 

If anything approaching satisfactory improvements 
is to be obtained, there must be a doubling of funds. 
Progressive citizens can render no service more patriotic 
than that of working for additional taxation for pur- 
poses of educational extension. Legislators possessed 
of the qualities of statesmanship will show themselves 
real architects of the nation by the enactment of laws 
that would increase the burdens and privileges of 
taxation for education. Our present burden is rela- 
tively small. It is said that the contribution per 
capita to the insular government here in the Philip- 
pines is about P4.00. In the United States today the 
government receives P66.00 in taxes for every man, 
woman, and child in its population. In England the 
per capita tax is P120.00. Measured in terms of per 
capita cost of educating a child, or in terms of rates 
of taxation, the Filipino people pay comparatively 



24 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

little. There is need here of a more widespread view 
of taxation, not only as a duty but as a privilege. A 
people like ours, which loves progress, must be willing 
to pay the price. 

It would improve our educational situation greatly 
if all municipalities were to raise their rate of taxation 
to the maximum now allowed by law; if the legisla- 
ture would enact a law raising the rate of taxation, 
or authorizing municipal councils to make additional 
levy for education; if lands were assessed more equi- 
tably and justly for purposes of taxation; if the citi- 
zens cultivated their lands more nearly in accord 
with scientific agriculture so that they might be more 
prosperous and could meet more easily their just 
obligations; and if all concerned were to labor for 
more adequate financing and intelligent apportion- 
ment and for greater equalization of the burdens and 
benefits of taxation for education. 

Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) Article 3 of Decree. See full text in Osias, C. Education in 

the Philippines under the Spanish Regime, pp. 105-113. 

(2) The School Law of the Philippine Islands, as amended by all 

acts of the Philippine Commission up to and including 
Act No. 1530, together with executive orders of the Gover- 
nor-General and opinions of the Attorney-General rendered 
prior to or on August 6, 1906, which affect the Bureau of 
Education. 

(3) Sixteenth Annual Report of the Director of Education, p. 19. 

1919 figure taken from the Twentieth Annual Report of the 
Director of Education. 

(4) Sixteenth Annual Report, p. 20. 

(5) , Table No. 19, pp. 154-157. 

(6) Bulletin No. 37, Bureau of Education. School Buildings and 

Grounds, pp. 14-16. 

(7) Sixteenth Annual Report of the Director of Education, pp. 

62-63. 



THE IMPROVEMENT OF BARRIO SCHOOLS 25 

(8) Sixteenth Annual Report, Table I, p. 99, and Table XIV, 

p. 106. 

(9) Bataan Division Circular No. 7, s. 1915; Bulletin No. 37, 

Bureau of Education. 

(10) Service Manual, Bureau of Education, 1917, Ch. VI. 

(11) Bataan Division Circular No. 7, s. 1915. 

(12) Shaw. School Hygiene. Osias, C. Educational Methods and 

Practical Suggestions, pp. 65-70. 

(13) Up from Slavery, Ch. VIII. 

(14) Francis, J. H. High Points in the Los Angeles Plan (National 

Education Association Proceedings, Vol. UV, pp. 988-993). 

(15) JoYNER, J. Y. Rural Education {National Education Proceed- 

ings, Vol. LIV, pp. 269-274). ' 

(16) Patten, S. N. The New Basis of Civilization, pp. 15-16. 

(17) Administrative Code, 1916, Sec. 2238. 

(18) Service Manual, Bureau of Education, 1917, p. 235. 

General Bibliography 

1. Bulletin No. 37, Bureau of Education. School Buildings and 

Grounds. 

2. Sixteenth Annual Report of the Director of Education. 

3. Service Manual, Bureau of Education, 1916. 

4. CuBBERLEY, E. P. The Improvement of Rural Schools. 

5. National Education Association Proceedings, Vol. LIV. 

6. Washington, Booker T. Up from Slavery. 



CHAPTER THREE 

Education for the Barrio Child 

In a democratically constituted society, education is 
a grave concern. Like politics, it is everybody's busi- 
ness. The ideal of popular education is a beacon light 
to all who believe in the evil of ignorance, in the effi- 
cacy of instruction, and in the joy of service. Our 
people are conscious of the desirability of that form of 
social life in which interests are interdependent and 
interbound and where readjustment is an important 
consideration. We therefore will never suffer the 
torch of education to go out or to become dimmed. 
We will at all times support the cause of practical and 
systematic education. 

The devotion of democracy to education is a familiar 
fact. The superficial explanation is that a government 
resting upon popular suffrage cannot be successful unless 
those who elect and who obey their governors are educated. 
Since a democratic society repudiates the principle of 
external authority, it must find a substitute in voluntary 
disposition and interest; these can be created only by 
education. But there is a deeper explanation. A de- 
mocracy is more than a form of government; it is prima- 
rily a mode of associated living, of conjoint communicated 
experience. The extension in space of the number of 
individuals who participate in an interest so that each 
has to refer his own action to that of others, and to con- 
sider the action of others to give point and direction to 
his own, is equivalent to the breaking down of those 
barriers of class, race, and national territory which kept 
men from perceiving the full import of their activity. 
These more numerous and more varied points of contact 
denote a greater diversity of stimuli to which an individual 
has to respond; they consequently put a premium on 
variation in his action. They secure a liberation of powers 

26 



EDUCATION FOR THE BARRIO CHILD 27 

which remain suppressed as long as the incitations to 
action are partial, as they must be in a group which in 
its exclusiveness shuts out many interests. (1) 

THE BARRIO CHILD's RIGHTS 

In theory all children have equal rights and privi- 
leges in sharing the benefits of education. In practice, 
however, the child in the barrio has not so far had the 
same opportunity for instruction as the child in the 
town or city. To be sure, there is no conscious at- 
tempt to deny the barrio child any of the rights and 
privileges which are his by law, but the absence of a 
school in his barrio, or the inaccessibility of the nearest 
school, or the general deficiency of the school in his 
barrio, for him has been a serious disadvantage. 

The barrio child is entitled to as good an educational 
opportunity as that enjoyed by the most favored child, 
in town or city, attending the Philippine public school. 
This is not to say that the barrio school shall be an 
exact copy of the school in town or city. There are 
certain essentials common to both types of schools, 
and it is the barrio child's right to have these essen- 
tials. There are differences in environment and con- 
ditions, however, which should lead to some differen- 
tiation. What this differentiation should be will be 
in part indicated here and will be more fully covered 
in the discussion of the barrio school curriculum 
(page 58). It may be stated here that the barrio 
school ought to be just as efficient in fitting the barrio 
child for the life he is to live as the town or city school 
is in fitting the town or city child for the life he is to 
live. (2) 

It is the barrio child's right to have an opportunity 
to enjoy the general benefits that accrue from our 



28 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

public school system. He is entitled to a good hygienic 
and sanitary school building. He is entitled to a first- 
class site where he may have ample space for outdoor 
work and play. He is entitled to the use of good equip- 
ment and to the enjoyment of art in pictures and art 
in the great out-of-doors. He is entitled to good sani- 
tary facilities. He is entitled to a school with big 
possibilities of growth and improvement. He is en- 
titled to a good teacher and good instruction. He 
is entitled to pursue a course adapted to his needs, 
interests, and capacities. And, let us not forget, he 
is also entitled to good, wholesome pleasure and plenty 
of it. In short, it is the inalienable right of the barrio 
child to acquire an education and to live a healthy, 
normal child's life. 

It should be said in passing that the term "barrio 
child" applies to a barrio girl as well as to a barrio boy. 
The frequent use of the masculine pronoun in refer- 
ring to the barrio child does not mean that the barrio 
girl is being discriminated against. It must be ad- 
mitted that the barrio girls do not seem to be getting 
benefit from the schools to the same extent as the bar- 
rio boys; the enrollment of the barrio schools shows 
a great preponderance of boys. However, it is a part 
of the writer's creed for barrio education that the barrio 
girl is entitled to every whit as good an opportunity as 
that enjoyed by the barrio boy. 

ECONOMIC STANDARDS OF LIVING 

The economic and social conditions in a community 
determine in a great measure the character of its 
school. In a community where the citizens are well- 
to-do and progressive, where the people have a civic 




Bureau of Lducalio/i, Manila, V. 1. 



A temporary barrio school building. 



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Bureau of Education, Manila, P.I. 
School garden at Lingsat, barrio of San Fernando, Union. 



EDUCATION FOR THE BARRIO CHILD 29 

pride, where the patrons are high-minded and big- 
hearted — here we may generally expect a school 
which is a factor in making life freer, happier, and 
more efficient. On the other hand, in a community 
where the members are poor and contented, where 
the people are more or less indifferent to community 
needs and interests, where parents send their children 
to school to get rid of them part of the day — there 
you may generally look for a poor school, a school out 
of touch with the community. It is not getting enough 
helpful cooperation from the people, and it is not 
giving enough to make life larger, better, and more 
worth living. In such a community there is need of 
preaching the spirit of discontent. The people must 
be led to acquire higher tastes and a desire for better 
things. The standard of living must be raised. 

A family happy with rice and salt, content with 
scanty clothing, and satisfied to live in a shack, can 
hardly be expected to be greatly concerned about the 
schooling of the children. It is no disgrace to admit 
that most of our barrio people, the patrons of the 
barrio school, have not yet conceived education 
broadly. They do not have high expectations from 
the schools. They think that the schools have fulfilled 
their function when the children have been enrolled 
and have been furnished with the simplest rudiments 
of "reading, 'riting, and 'rithmetic." They have not 
grasped the idea that education is a process of enlarg- 
ing and enriching life. The consequence is that the 
barrio school has not conceived its function in a broad 
way. The attitude of the community is reflected in 
the character of the school. A stream, in truth, can- 
not rise higher than its source. (3) The remedy lies 



30 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

in elevating barrio community and barrio school 
standards. There must be a mutual concession and 
cooperation. 

Betts speaks of the danger in rural communities of 
premature aging and stagnation. (4) He says: 

The indisputable tendency of farmers and their wives 
to age so rapidly, and so early to fall into the ranks of 
"fogy ism," is due far more to lack of variety and recreation 
and to dearth of intellectual stimulus than to hard labor, 
severe as this often is. Age is more than the flight of the 
years, the stoop of the form, or the hardening of the ar- 
teries; it is also the atrophy of the intellect and the 
fading away of the emotions resulting from disuse. The 
farmer needs occasionally to have something more exciting 
than the alternation of the day*s work with the nightly 
"chores." And his wife should now and then have an 
opportunity to meet people other than those for whom she 
cooks and sews. 

Patten, in The New Basis of Civilization, (5) blocks 
in elementary fashion " the income graduation whereby 
men pass from one stage of progress to another," and 
he says that the relative economic levels in America 
look somewhat like this: 



$5000 


Economic Leisure 


$2000 


Economic Initiative 


$1200 


Economic Independence 


$800 


Economic Freedom 


$500 


Family Continuity 


$300 


Poverty 




Dissolution 



It is believed that if the dollar sign ($) were changed 
and the peso sign (P) substituted in this table without 



EDUCATION FOR THE BARRIO CHILD 31 

changing the figures, we should have a table which 
would approximate the "relative economic levels" in 
the Philippine Islands. And the following discussion 
of conditions in America by the same author would 
prove greatly insiructive and illuminating to us as a 
people. 

The dissolution of families in large cities is well-nigh 
inevitable when its income falls below $500. Those 
which do cling together are chiefly the latest comers, 
intruded material which has not yet taken the pattern 
that their forerunners are adopting. The Italian parents, 
who landed in New York a year ago, send their ten-year- 
old boy to work instead of to school, not only because 
they take it for granted that he must work, but also 
because they do not grasp the fact that poor boys here 
go to school. Five years later, when mother and sisters 
are discomfited by their native dresses and the father 
wants half -holidays, — when the old social forces have 
weakened before the advance of new economic motives, — 
the ten-year-old boy may still be sent to work. But now 
there are complaints. "Pietro ought to study Roosevelt- 
book [history], but padrone is too mean," said a mother, 
fretfully, herself the daughter of a long line of peasants 
whose family standards did not include literacy. And 
now her family, living on a dollar a day, verges on dis- 
solution; it must move upward toward $500 or dowTiward, 
where the eliminating forces of prostitution, intemperance, 
and the other vices sweep it out of the reckoning. The 
disturbances made by the foreign influx do not threaten 
a permanent depression; they are but the cost of moving 
populations over the face of the globe and the clashing 
of new forces against old ones, which cannot endure 
outside the condition that generated them. 

With $500 the Americanized family can perpetuate it- 
seK, balanced by the juncture of depressant social instincts 
which arrest it below the $800 level, where men without 
them would be free, and the upthrusting economic motives 



32 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

that would postpone the family until full nutrition were 
secured. If emphasis is laid, as it ought to be, on the 
value of the wife's home services in the $500 group, the 
real income will be estimated at more than the nominal 
one, and her influence in lifting the members into the 
next stratum of wants will be as evident here as it is in 
the succeeding divisions. The computation is based on 
the money wage of the head of the family and gives no 
equivalent to the labor services of the wife, which un- 
doubtedly raises the income in goods above the point 
commonly assigned. In comparing the workingman with 
the man of economic independence a fair basis of judg- 
ment cannot be reached unless a value be given to the 
unpaid duties performed by the wife, which in other 
grades of living are provided for from the family purse. 
A budget of $2000 a year will generally include an item 
for household services performed by a maid or occasional 
scrub and wash women. When the work is done by the 
laborer's wife, she should be credited with a similar item 
and her influence be noted as raising the standard of 
family life very much as the presence of a domestic em- 
ployee raises it. The man who earns $500 and is helped 
at home by a capable wife certainly has in her services 
the value of a hundred dollars. 

What does this have to do with the general school 
question.^ Much. Standards of living are defined, 
and education should be a great factor in influencing 
boys and girls, men and women, to aspire and labor for 
a higher standard of living. The eflScacy of the schools 
to assist the citizens to place themselves upon an 
economic plane of life above the level of poverty, 
yes, above the level of mere family continuity, 
should be considered an important measure of their 
efficiency. 



EDUCATION FOR THE BARRIO CHILD 33 

EDUCATIONAL DEMANDS UPON THE BARRIO CHILD 

The new standards of living make new demands 
upon the future citizens born and reared amidst barrio 
environment. Education at such an age as this is 
not a luxury but an individual and social necessity. 
What, then, should the barrio child's education con- 
sist of? The barrio child, like the city child, should 
possess the minimum essentials common to rural and 
urban school systems. At present the education 
offered in barrio schools is primary education. In 
many of them not even the full primary course is 
taught. The new day, however, has dawned upon our 
barrio population. It is only a question of a few 
years before intermediate instruction will be the 
rightful heritage of the barrio child. Many of the 
present generation should yet live to see secondary 
instruction in junior high schools in a few of our 
larger and more progressive barrios. Let us consider 
the five needs of the child that the school must meet. 

(1) Confining ourselves to the present and the im- 
mediate future, we must admit that physical instruc- 
tion should be a vital part of the barrio child's educa- 
tion. The barrio boy or girl needs to learn to play 
and to enjoy. Wholesome games and sports should 
be taught to the barrio child to replace the "tangga," 
and other amusements having the gambling element 
which were common pastimes of childhood in the days 
of old. Clean recreation should drive out much of 
the dreary monotony of barrio environment. Well- 
conducted calisthenics and properly managed athletic 
meets should at intervals be shown for the benefit 
of the participants and for the entertainment of the 



34 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

neighborhood. Physical instruction should include 
that training which fosters the formation of hygienic 
and sanitary habits. In short, the physical education 
of the barrio child should be that which is conducive 
to the conservation and, if possible, the improvement 
of health. It should make for greater physical eflSciency. 

(2) The barrio child's education should include prac- 
tical training in intellectual pursuits which will quicken 
his mind. He needs linguistic training; he needs to 
acquire the power to read and the habit of reading; 
he needs to possess the ability to write; and he needs 
number work which will identify him with the quanti- 
tative relations of life. The barrio child should also 
have some notion of the world about him, of the story 
of his people and of his country's past. Training in 
habits of good citizenship should constitute one of his 
priceless possessions. His academic studies will be 
discussed more definitely in a later chapter (page 58), 
where the barrio school curriculum is considered in 
some detail. 

(3) iEsthetic training is a vital part of the child's 
instruction. He must be schooled to abhor the evil 
and the ugly and to love the good and the beautiful 
in men and nature. His work in drawing, his school 
environment, his share in beautifying the grounds, 
and countless other agencies should assist to further 
his growth in aesthetic appreciation. Influences, direct 
and indirect, should be brought to bear so that the 
barrio homes may be cleaner, more orderly, and more 
substantial. 

(4) Vocational education is necessary to fit the 
barrio child for participation in the social life of the 
new barrio communities that are fast coming into 



EDUCATION FOR THE BARRIO CHILD 35 

being. There must be training of an industrial nature 
to give the barrio pupils opportunity to acquire in- 
dustrial knowledge, industrial skill, and industrial 
sympathy. When barrio intermediate schools are 
estabhshed, — as surely they must be in a future not 
remote, — they must be " barrio-ized " intermediate 
schools. They must offer courses somewhat differen- 
tiated from those given in similar schools of the towns 
or cities. For intermediate boys of the barrios, the 
special farming course is best fitted. The dream of 
many of our thinkers, of turning the tide of youth 
from clerical interests into agricultural channels, will 
be more effectively realized when these " barrio-ized " 
intermediate schools with farming courses have been 
established and efficiently administered. For inter- 
mediate girls of the barrios, a modified and improved 
special housekeeping course should be devised. Just 
as the barrio intermediate courses for boys should 
prepare the boys for farm life and for fatherhood, just 
so should the barrio intermediate courses prepare the 
girls for home life on the farm and for motherhood. 

(5) It is not enough to train the barrio child for his 
vocation. He must also be fitted for some avocation. 
Training for leisure should go hand in hand with 
training for work. The citizen of the new order must 
not only have a chief life work but must have some 
side interests to vary his activity and to widen his area 
of shared concerns. The idle hands not only do mis- 
chief, but cause poverty. A man's vocation should 
be his primary concern; his avocation, a secondary 
matter. Nevertheless, his training nowadays is in- 
complete unless there is a clean, interesting, and 
profitable avocation to occupy his leisure hours. 



S6 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

The education for the barrio child, then, should make 
for all-round development. His schooling should ap- 
peal to his many-sided self. It should minister to 
his physical, intellectual, moral, aesthetic, and indus- 
trial well-being. But let us not be over-enthusiastic 
in our claims for barrio education. While we believe 
in the principle that barrio education should adjust 
barrio children to barrio life, we are also conscious of 
the fact that urbanization cannot be wholly checked. 
Some — perhaps many — will not be able to resist 
the lure of town or city life. It is inevitable and 
probably desirable that some be thus lured. Reac- 
tion may yet come, however. When the standards of 
barrio life are elevated, when educational opportuni- 
ties are more nearly equalized, the call of the farm may 
make itself heard. It may — who knows .^^ — prove 
an irresistible call, luring — yes, " barrio-izing " — 
some of our urban population. Meanwhile let us have 
faith in barrio life and barrio education, and in that 
faith let us labor for the " barrio-ization " of most of 
our barrio population and a few of our urban popu- 
lation. 

CREEDS PROPOSED 

President Creelman of Ontario Agricultural College 
gave pertinent suggestions for improving the rural 
school curricula before members of the National Edu- 
cation Association interested in rural school questions, 
at a meeting held in New York City. (6) At the close 
of his address he proposed as rural school creeds those 
used for Ontario country boys and girls. The creeds 
are sound and instructive. The following creeds 
patterned after them are submitted as creeds for barrio 
boys and girls: 



EDUCATION FOR THE BARRIO CHILD 37 

THE BARRIO BOY'S CREED 

1. I believe that life in the barrio can be made as 

pleasant, as hygienic, and as profitable as life in 
the town or city. 

2. I believe that if I kill the weeds on our farm, we 

shall be well paid by the increased crop alone, 
to say nothing of the benefit to our neighbors. 

3. I believe that by keeping more chickens and by 

careful selection of breeds I can double the output 
of the flock. 

4. I believe that by keeping twice as many work 

animals and by taking better care of them we 
can grow much larger crops of rice, corn, and 
other things. 

5. I believe that by keeping a good home garden we 

can increase, vary, and improve our diet. 

6. I believe that by better selection of seeds and 

plants we can double our crops. 

7. I believe that by planting fruit trees, keeping a 

good fence, and growing climbing vines, shrubs, 
and flowers, we shall be better contented and 
happier in every way and our land will increase 
in value. 

8. I believe in good health and that cleanliness is 

the greatest preventive of any disease. 

9. I believe that it is more comfortable and more 

hygienic to sleep on a bed and under a mosquito 
net. 

10. I believe in pluck, not in luck. 

11. I believe in the dignity of labor and in farming 

as an honorable calling, and I am glad that work 
and gardening are taught in school. 

12. 1 believe in giving and receiving a square deal 

in every act of life. 



38 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

THE BARRIO GIRL'S CREED 

1. I believe that I can be as happy in the barrio as 

any girl in the town or city. 

2. I believe in beautiful things, and that God's blue 

sky and God's green earth are a part of my 
inheritance. 

3. I believe that I have a right to love chickens and 

pigs and goats and puppies as well as dolls and 
dresses. 

4. I believe that I can take care of some domestic 

animals as well as my brother, who does not love 
them as much as I. 

5. I believe in homemaking, and I may become a 

homemaker by helping mother and by studying 
the art and science of homemaking. 

6. I believe in a good house, and I can help keep a 

good house by keeping it clean and orderly. 

7. I believe I can learn to do sewing, cooking, and 

laundry work and do them well, and I want to 
learn them and do them well. 

8. I believe in hard work, but also I like to play and 

have some fun. 

9. I believe in keeping a garden of my own. I believe 

I would love to give away flowers and cook vege- 
tables which I myself raised. 

10. I believe in good health. I believe our family 

will be in better health if I help boil the water 
we drink, cook better foods, make mosquito nets, 
and take good care of the babies. 

11. I believe I have a right to live in the barrio. I 

don't like to live in the city and be away from my 
folks at home and also I shall miss my plants, 
the green grass, the trees, and the birds. 

12. I believe in a square deal for everybody. 



EDUCATION FOR THE BARRIO CHILD 39 

Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) Dewey, John. Democracy and Education, p. 101. 

(2) Kern, O. J. Among Country Schools, Ch. II. 

(3) Betts, G. H. New Ideals in Rural Schools, pp. 25-26. 

(4) . New Ideals in Rural Schools, pp. 29-30. 

(5) See pages 87-88. 

(6) National Education Association Proceedings, 1916, pp. 947-953. 

General Bibliography 

1. Patten, Simon N. New Basis of Civilization. 

2. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. 

3. Betts, G. H. New Ideals in Rural Schools. 

4. Ayres, L. p. Child Accounting in the Public Schools. 

5. Bailey, Henry Turner. Art Education. 



CHAPTER FOUR 

The Barrio Teacher and the Barrio School 

The barrio educational problem is inseparable from 
barrio life. This being so, it would be profitable to 
have an insight into some of the barrio conditions, 
in order that we may more easily understand the 
probable social scene of action where the barrio child 
is to play his part after his training in the barrio school 
under the direction and guidance of the barrio teacher. 

a glimpse of barrio conditions 

The practical, contented, and sturdy inhabitants 
of barrio communities possess those fundamental 
qualities observed and admired by foreigners, from 
time immemorial, as virtues characteristic of the 
Filipino race. Among them are politeness, hospitality, 
and loyalty to family ties. A famous European ob- 
server who traveled extensively in the Philippines 
during the Spanish rule recorded his impression of 
one of the Filipino traits of character in these words: 
"Filipino hospitality is ample, and much more com- 
prehensive than that practiced in Europe." (1) The 
same authority, Jagor, also described some of the 
home conditions of the people in the provinces, who 
dwelt in more or less rural communities. The follow- 
ing excerpt is quoted because the description has much 
that still holds true of the conditions that obtain among 
barrio families who are sheltered in the unassuming, 
but for their purposes very practical, houses of bam- 
boos and nipa palm leaves or cogon grass. The de- 
scription furthermore points out a commendable trait 
of the people, their cooperative spirit, as well as a 

40 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 41 

danger to which inhabitants Hving amidst such sur- 
roundings are exposed: 

Every family possesses its own house; and the young 
husband generally builds with the assistance of his friends. 
In many places it does not cost more than four or five 
dollars, as he can, if necessary, build it himself free of 
expense, with the simple aid of the forest-knife (bolo) and 
of the materials to his hand, bamboo, Spanish cane, and 
palm leaves. These houses, which are always built on 
piles on account of the humidity of the soil, often consist 
of a single shed, which serves for all the uses of a dwelling, 
and are the cause of great laxity and of filthy habits, 
the whole family sleeping therein in common, and every 
passer-by being a welcome guest. (2) 

Except in the wealthier homes, the details of house- 
hold belongings in the ordinary barrio home are rather 
simple and limited. Under a little extension shed 
near the entrance to the house may be seen a wooden 
mortar, several pestles, and a few baskets which are 
used when pounding rice. The stairway by which 
one ascends to the house is of bamboo. Within one 
sees about the room a long wooden bench stretched 
along the wall; two chairs facing one another near 
one of the windows; along the opposite wall one or 
two wooden trunks and a few tampipis; in a corner 
near these a "pillowstead" (unanan, Tagalog, or dayu- 
day, Ilocano), a framework where pillows are piled, 
and several rolled petates, or sleeping mats, to be 
spread at bedtime on the strips of bamboo with which 
the barrio house is ordinarily floored. In the center 
of the room is seen hanging a lamp; along the walls 
are also hanging the useful bolo, several bottles con- 
taining oil, and a guitar, or bandurria. In the little 
kitchen a stove, some earthen pots, and a carajay for 



42 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

cooking, a large jar where rice is kept, and two or 
three jars of drinking water, each covered with a 
wooden plate, some wooden spoons {ado, Ilocano), 
coconut cups, and dippers, and perhaps a few plates, 
complete the hst of utensils. In the batalan may be 
seen a large tinaja containing water for washing, and 
perhaps several pots with growing plants — some 
edible, a few medicinal, and others decorative. 

THE BARRIO AND ITS INSTITUTION FOR UPLIFT 

From this brief description we may catch a glimpse 
of conditions in the ordinary community in a barrio. 
What is a barrio? It "may be but a little cluster of 
huts, located on the edge of the yet untouched forest 
where they will be contiguous to the planted crop; but 
a barrio may also sometimes be a little village in itself, 
with its separate school (just as it had a visita, or chapel 
dependent upon the parish church of the town, in 
Spanish times) and with a thousand or more inhabit- 
ants." (3) 

THE PLACE OF THE BARRIO TEACHER 

The school, then, is the outstanding institution for 
individual and social uplift in the barrio, and the barrio 
teacher is the minister for the welfare and advance- 
ment in the barrio community. Viewed from the 
educational viewpoint, the teacher's place is that of 
an intermediary between the child and the curriculum. 
The previous chapter dealt with the education suitable 
for the barrio child. The chapter following this is to 
deal with that great mass of subject matter, that 
wealth of chosen individual and social experience, 
that lies ready for the pupil to learn. 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 43 

THE BARRIO TEACHER's FUNCTION 

To act as an interpreter between the learner and the 
curriculum is the teacher's function, and this is a 
grave responsibility and a serious task. His is the 
duty to prepare the pupils for active and intelligent 
participation in rural life, to train them for the voca- 
tions of barrio life, and to offer them the advantages 
as well as the essentials of an education. (4) 

With the child the teacher is greatly concerned. 
Dewey wrote: "It is his [the child's] present powers 
which are to assert themselves; his present capacities 
which are to be exercised; his present attitudes which 
are to be realized." (5) 

With regard to the curriculum and its relation to 
the teacher the same authority said: 

Now, the value of the formulated wealth of knowledge 
that makes up the course of study is that it may enable 
the educator to determine the environment of the child, 
and thus by indirection to direct. Its primary value, its 
primary indication, is for the teacher, not for the child. 
It says to the teacher: Such and such are the capacities, 
the fulfillments, in truth and beauty and behavior, open 
to these children. Now see to it that day by day the 
conditions are such that their own activities move in- 
evitably in this direction, toward such culmination of 
themselves. Let the child's nature fulfill its own destiny, 
revealed to you in whatever of science and art and in- 
dustry the world now holds as its own. (6) 

teacher's qualifications demanded 

If such is the teacher's function, and it is^ what 
qualifications must he possess to fulfill his mission 
wisely? This is a pertinent question, and without 
going into a detailed exposition of the qualities, train- 



44 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

ing, experience, and ideals a teacher should possess, 
we venture to answer by proposing three requisites. 
To discharge his duties effectively, scientifically, and 
efficiently, it is essential — 

First, that the teacher know, and know wisely and 
thoroughly, the subject matter; 

Second, that he know, and know wisely and thor- 
oughly, the methods of instruction; and 

Third, that he know, and Imow wisely and thor- 
oughly, the child. 

Efficiency in education demands on the part of the 
teacher a knowledge of these three factors. He must 
have a knowledge of the subject matter, for he cannot 
teach unless he knows what he is to teach; he must 
have a knowledge of methods, for he cannot teach 
unless he knows how to teach; he must know the 
child, for he cannot teach one whose nature he does 
not know. (7) To teach perfectly, one must have a 
perfect knowledge of these three factors; to teach 
properly, one must have adequate knowledge of them. 
The most successful teacher is he who, other things 
being equal, knows best the subject matter, methods, 
and the child, and has the greatest power and skill to 
apply that knowledge. 

SHORTCOMINGS 

In the light of these considerations, it is no dis- 
respect to the teachers to admit serious shortcomings. 
It is no disgrace to confess weakness and inefficiency 
in many barrio schools. It must be acknowledged that 
most barrio teachers know little about subject matter, 
know less about methods, and know least about child 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 45 

nature. This is not at all surprising, for even in such 
a progressive country as America, educators are clamor- 
ing for a new type of rural teachers. Here is the way 
the "average rural teacher" in the United States is 
described : 

Without intentional disrespect to teachers now engaged 
in rural service, it must, nevertheless, be acknowledged 
that the average rural teacher of today is a mere slip of 
a girl, often almost too young to have formed as yet any 
conception of the problem of rural life and needs; that 
she knows little as to the nature of children or the technique 
of instruction; that her education is very limited and 
confined largely to the old traditional school-subjects, 
while of the great and important fields of science she is 
almost entirely ignorant; and that she not infrequently 
lacks in those qualities of leadership which are so essential 
for rural progress. (8) 

Change the gender from feminine to masculine, and 
the above discussion applies exactly to the average 
barrio teacher of the Philippines today. 

MUNICIPAL TEACHERS* ATTAINMENTS 

Although the barrio teachers do not have as good 
training as we desire, their record of service, consider- 
ing all circumstances, is nothing short of marvelous. 
In common with other municipal teachers they are 
constantly advancing. The rapid improvement in 
the attainments of Filipino teachers during the last 
few years is good cause for optimism. The following 
table of progress in attainments makes the outlook in 
the future bright: 



46 



BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 



1909-10 
1910-11 
1911-12 
1912-13 
1913-14 
1914-15 
1915-16 
1916-17 
1917-18 
1918-19 



Grade IV and 
under 


First year 
to fourth 


Above 
fourth 




year 


year 


564 


2,082 




370 


2,837 




178 


2,855 


89 


96 


3,271 


251 


78 


5,104 


341 


64 


6,237 


468 


36 


7,790 


616 




8,956 


1,228 


. . 


10,530 


1,223 




11,838 


1,623 



It should be said by way of explanation that the 
teachers with low academic attainments have been 
employed as instructors of industrial work. The 
Director of Education, commenting upon the data 
given above, said: "The decrease in the number of 
teachers of primary attainments, the increase in those 
of first-year attainments, and the gain in high-school 
and college graduates, indicate the steady progress 
made in raising the qualifications of the teaching 
staff." (9) 



MUNICIPAL TEACHERS SALARIES 

Our inadequate finances for school purposes have 
retarded educational progress. The barrio school has 
been left stranded behind all others. Good teaching 
is not wholly, but it is largely, dependent upon salaries. 
The salary paid the ordinary municipal teacher today 
is hardly a decent living wage. The day is fast com- 
ing — and in many places, indeed, it has come — 
when F7.00 per week is the very lowest amount that 
could be considered as a living wage. Yet at the close 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 47 

of the school year 1915-16 the average monthly salary 
paid each of the 9138 municipal teachers employed was 
only F22.88. Twenty-six provinces paid an average 
salary below F22.88, and thirteen provinces paid less 
than F20.00. (10) Lately the minimum salary was 
raised to F30 in most provinces and to F40 in the few 
others. The need of devising ways and means for 
increasing our school finances is obvious and im- 
perative. 

The salaries of public school teachers are a matter 
of vital concern to the country from the standpoint 
of service. In the general competitive struggle the 
teaching profession cannot hold its own with other 
professions, trades, and occupations unless adequate 
salaries are paid. While recognizing the many defi- 
ciencies of the average barrio teacher for really effec- 
tive barrio service, all have to admit that the results 
obtained are truly remarkable, in spite of poor com- 
pensation and other hardships. The wonder is that 
so many young men of energy and earnestness can 
be attracted to such a poorly paid calling, even for 
short periods, and that they are willing, during their 
period of employment, to spend so much time and 
effort in study and work and service. This fact is 
eloquent tribute to the patriotism of the teachers and 
to the devotion they have to their work. 

But if in America it is realized, in the Philippine 
Islands there is greater reason to recognize, that — 

the rock toward which the educational ship is drifting is 
the financial one. You and I must educate the people to 
believe that it is better to save a child to himself before 
he runs into the reefs of his life than it is to expend money 
on police courts, jails, and juvenile courts, trying to 



48 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

patch him up and protect society from him after he has 
been wrecked. The pubUc must recognize that the 
greatest asset of a nation is her boys and her girls, and 
that instead of spending too much money today on offer- 
ing these boys and girls a chance at their better and bigger 
selves, we are spending all too little. (11) 

SERVICE OF BARRIO TEACHER AND SCHOOL 
TO THE COMMUNITY 

The barrio school is no place for the laggard or the 
weak-hearted. The barrio teacher often hrs to live 
in isolation, culturally and professionally. If he is 
stationed in a more or less inaccessible place, he has 
little chance of professional assistance from a superior 
source. Only the teacher who is willing to accept the 
challenge of hard and trying work and who finds joy 
in individual and social service has a place in the 
barrio school. 

The work of the barrio teacher is, indeed, an ardu- 
ous one. He goes to school early to put up his black- 
board woi^k and to watch the conduct of the pupils in 
the yard, dropping suggestions here and there and 
inculcating lessons of good behavior as occasions arise. 
He teaches all the academic subjects for the grade or 
grades under his charge. Forty to sixty children are 
turned over to him at a period when they are unable 
to cope with the experience of the world. When they 
need to learn to read, he is called in; when they need 
to draw or write, he is at hand; when they need to 
cipher, he guides them through the intricacies of the 
process; when they are dirty or sick, he gives them 
help and advice. The barrio teacher handles also the 
industrial subjects. Often the same teacher has to 
teach weaving, basketry, and gardening to the boys 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 49 

and plain sewing to the girls. He must also be an 
athlete, able to conduct calisthenics and group games, 
and to participate in baseball, volley ball, or other 
athletic events. He stays in school late to see that the 
school and premises are kept clean. Outside school 
hours he visits the pupils in their homes to ascertain 
the number of fruit trees they planted or to see that 
the home gardens are clean and well cultivated. At 
night he corrects the pupils' work and writes his 
lesson plans. On Saturdays he attends to the repair 
of the building or fence, or prepares his reports. On 
Sundays he conducts popular meetings, holds literary 
programs, or delivers civico-educational lectures deal- 
ing with the rights and duties of citizens, the preven- 
tion of diseases, rice culture, corn cultivation, coconut 
planting, or the care of domestic animals. In his resi- 
dence the teacher is frequently visited, and he imparts 
to the simple folks, but willing learners, news of the 
Philippines and of the world, precautions in times of 
epidemics, or lessons in seed selection or poultry rais- 
ing. He has the good will of the people and asks their 
aid in constructing outhouses, repairing the school 
building, or beautifying the premises. 

Yet the very difficulty and hardness of the adverse 
conditions constitute a challenge to the heroic element in 
choice natures. The obstacles act as a dare to the spirit 
of conquest inherent in youth. They call for sacrifice, 
yet offer the opportunity for the testing of one's powers 
and for the winning of hard-earned victories. Man at 
his best is not afraid of hardship and does not look for an 
easy task. The spirit of conflict deeply rooted in human 
nature, and the impulse to try to the utmost all our powers, 
prompt us to measure our strength against difficulties 
that appear all but insuperable. It is this spirit that 



50 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

explains the measure of success that has attended our 
rural schools even under such discouraging conditions. 
That the rural school has proved as efficient as it has, is 
a high testimony to the intelligence and resourcefulness 
of our young men and women who have begun their 
careers as rural school teachers. (12) 

The preceding discussion makes it plain that the 
service of the teacher and the school is by no means 
confined within the school walls. It is more than fur- 
thering the physical, moral, intellectual, and economic 
eflSciency of the pupils; it is community uplift. 

Upon the agricultural and industrial progress of the 
barrios the barrio teacher and the barrio schools are 
exerting a tremendous influence. One of the tragedies 
of the education of old was that many a farmer's child 
was sent to school by fond parents only to acquire 
some dangerous little learning and some customs and 
conventions which made him feel so high in his own 
estimation that after his schooling he could no longer 
stoop down low enough to touch the handle of the 
plow. The education of today is not for the purpose 
of training "ladies" and "gentlemen" who consider 
themselves superior to manual labor. The barrio 
education should educate barrio children for the farm, 
not away from it. In proportion as the barrio child 
gets an education, in the same proportion should his 
value as an economic factor increase. 

There are many evidences of the influence of the 
teacher and the school for economic betterment. The 
lessons in plain sewing, cooking, and embroidery given 
to girls enable them to carry on profitable activities in 
the home. Many parents are making garments after 
school models. One-piece dresses for children are 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 51 

more frequently worn. The teaching of basketry 
enables boys to have some secondary industry to oc- 
cupy their leisure moments. School-made baskets are 
now used to a much greater extent. "The fancy 
weaves used in elementary weaving exercises are 
beginning- to be seen in the sawali walls, ceihngs, and 
window shutters of homes." (13) The work in school 
and home gardening, the organization of agricultural 
clubs among boys and girls for agricultural and home 
projects, the fruit-tree-growing activities, the corn 
demonstrations and garden days, and the industrial 
exhibits — all these are contributing to the prosperity 
of our communities to an extent that only men 
who have been identified with the activities can ap- 
preciate. 

The barrio teacher and the barrio school also render 
effective service along hygienic and sanitary lines. 
Frequent inspection to insure cleanliness is carried on 
among pupils, especially those in the lower grades. In 
cooperation with the health officers, the barrio school 
facilitates vaccination among the children and the 
barrio teacher carries on medical inspection to prevent 
the spread of contagious diseases. The school out- 
houses are not infrequently the best models for acces- 
sory buildings in the barrios. The school playground 
affords space, facility, opportunity, and incentive for 
the expression of play instincts and impulses. The 
athletic sports aid in the maintenance and improve- 
ment of health. Through school instruction the ad- 
visability of using boiled water for drinking, mosquito 
net to prevent malaria, and well-cooked foods to 
avoid cholera, is inculcated in the minds of the people. 
In times of epidemic the school is the best and quickest 



52 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

medium for distributing health leaflets and pamphlets 
and for imparting the instruction on precautions to be 
observed and on measures to be put into effect. 

COMMUNITY SERVICE TO THE SCHOOL 

The conferring of benefits is not, however, wholly 
one-sided. Progressive communities are appreciative 
of the service of the teacher and the school, and the 
people render invaluable assistance. The parents, 
realizing that schooling is the chief duty of childhood 
during school age, send their children to school. They 
desire to have their sons and daughters well housed, 
and so they help build or repair the schoolhouse. In 
the absence of municipal funds for the purchase of ade- 
quate school sites, land is in many instances donated. 
When additional teachers or additional desks are 
needed and the municipality is unable to furnish the 
money, the barrio people contribute. Interest in 
school matters is further manifested by the people in 
their visits to the school or to the teacher, in their 
presence at athletic meets or at school entertainments, 
or in furnishing materials and money which are neces- 
sary in connection with the industrial and academic 
classes. In these and in many other ways the members 
of wide-awake communities show their faith in edu- 
cation as a wise and profitable investment. 

FOUR PROPOSITIONS 

We venture to make four propositions, believing 
that they will be, if followed, contributive to the 
greater happiness and efficiency of the barrio teacher 
and to the improvement of the barrio school. 

We suggest the adoption on the part of administra- 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 53 

tive school officers of a fairly well-defined policy with 
respect to the assignment and promotion of barrio 
teachers. The entrance salary should be determined 
upon, depending, of course, upon the training and 
ability of the applicant, school funds available, and 
location of the school. An applicant for a teaching 
position who plans to stay at least two years in the 
service should be preferred. A new barrio teacher 
should first be assigned to a central school or a near-by 
barrio, so that in the beginning he may get the great- 
est possible benefit from the professional assistance of 
a good supervisory officer. After a year or so of satis- 
factory service, he may be made principal of a barrio 
school, if there is a suitable vacancy. Success as a 
barrio school principal should be rewarded by a suit- 
able salary increase, if possible, or by promotion to a 
more responsible position in a barrio or central school. 
We also submit for thoughtful consideration the 
question of providing a barrio teacher's house. In 
not a few cases barrio teachers do not long remain 
in their stations, because of inadequate house accom- 
modations. As a rule, a public servant gives and does 
his best when he is more or less happy personally and 
in a house. The barrio teacher's house should be 
better than the average house in the barrio, so that it 
may have an unconscious elevating influence upon 
the people in the community. The teacher should 
live in a manner becoming his profession, so that his 
home life may have an influence for good in the com- 
munity. This proposition is not a mere dream, nor 
is it Utopian. It has been put into effect in many 
rural districts of some of the European countries and 
of the United States. It was tried also in a few barrios 



54 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

of the Philippines. One of these experiments was 
conducted with a fair degree of success in one of the 
barrio schools under the supervision of the writer, in 
La Union, and will be dealt with in some detail in a 
later chapter (pages 100-101). 

The next proposition has to do with the training of 
barrio teachers. . We urge that at least a considera- 
tion of the barrio school problems, if a separate course 
cannot be given, be made a part of the courses in 
methods or education in schools giving normal or 
educational courses. In the College of Education of 
the University of the Philippines the students should 
acquire a clear insight into barrio life and barrio edu- 
cation, because this will be useful especially to those 
who are to go out in a supervisory capacity. In 
schools giving normal courses, a course in barrio 
school education would be profitable, especially for 
those who are ito become principals of municipal 
schools. In addition to these there seems to be a need 
for a professional normal course of two years' duration 
beyond the intermediate course, for the training of 
primary teachers and especially barrio teachers. The 
intermediate teaching courses in the past have served 
a useful end. The two-year teaching course here pro- 
posed would satisfy a positive need. It is obvious 
that we cannot expect a normal school graduate to 
be content as a barrio municipal teacher with our 
present meager finances. The intermediate teaching 
courses are now practically abolished. The two-year 
normal course seems to be the logical remedy. It 
should be stated here that the Director of Education 
has authorized the establishment of a two-year normal 
course for high schools that do not have the full four- 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 55 

year course. Such a course would be enriched by a 
greater emphasis on the barrio school question. 

Lastly, we venture to touch upon a point which 
may be deemed premature by some; namely, the 
question of teachers' pensions. The time for consider- 
ing this problem seriously is at hand. After legis- 
lative measures will have been enacted, materially 
increasing our funds, definite steps should be taken 
toward devising an equitable system of rewarding 
faithful employees with a record of efficient service for 
a period of, say 15 or 20 years. Nothing would have a 
tendency to attract the best men and women to the 
profession and to insure a greater permanency in the 
tenure of teachers than a satisfactory pension system 
which would assure to the teachers in their old age a 
just reward for long and faithful service. (14) 

A teacher's creed 

In the last chapter we closed the discussion of the 
education of the barrio child with creeds for boys and 
girls. To make the creeds complete we quote Edwin 
Osgood Grover's creed, consisting of seven "I believe's," 
deeming it appropriate for a teacher's creed: 

I believe in boys and girls, the men and women of a 
great tomorrow; that whatsoever the boy soweth 
the man shall reap. I believe in the curse of igno- 
rance, in the efficacy of schools, in the dignity of 
teaching, and in the joy of serving another. I 
believe in wisdom as revealed in human lives, as 
well as in the pages of a printed book; in lessons 
taught not so much by precept as by example; in 
ability to work with the hands as well as to think 
with the head; in everything that makes life large 



56 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

and lovely. I believe in beauty in the schoolroom, 
in the home, in daily life, and out of doors. I be- 
lieve in laughter, in love, in all ideals and distant 
hopes that lure us on. I believe that every hour 
of every day we receive a just reward for all we are 
and all we do. I believe in the present and its 
opportunities, in the future and its promise, and in 
the divine joy of living. Amen. (15) 

Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) Jagor, Fedor. Travels in the Philippines, p. 79 (in Craig- 

Benitez, Philippine Progress Prior to 189S and The Former 
Philippines thru Foreign Eyes). 

(2) . Travels in the Philippines, pp. 145-146. 

(3) Le Roy, James A. Philippine Life in Town and Country, 

Ch. Ill, p. 44. 

(4) Cubberley, E. p. The Improvement of Rural Schools, pp. 

36-37. 

(5) Dewey, John. The School and the Child, p. 47. 

(6) . The School and the Child, pp. 46-47. 

(7) Betts, G. H. New Ideals in Rural Schools, pp. 94-97. 

(8) Cubberley, E. P. Rural Life and Education, p. 283. 

(9) Seventeenth Annual Report of the Director of Education, p. 12. 

(10) Ibid., Table No. 3, p. 77. 

(11) National Education Association Addresses and Proceedings, 

Vol. LIV, p. 989. 

(12) Betts, G. H., and Hall, Otis. Better Rural Schools, pp. 

119-120. 

(13) The Philippine Craftsman, Vol. IV, p. 446. 

(14) Prosser, C. a. The Teacher and Old Age. 

(15) Quoted in Kern, O. J. Among Country Schools, p. 24. 

General Bibliography 

1. Cubberley, E. P. Rural Life and Education, Ch. XII. 

2. Kern, O. J. Among Country Schools, Chs. IX, XI, and XIII. 

3. Betts, G. H., and Hall, 0. E. Better Rural Schools, Part III. 

4. Sixteenth Annual Report of the Director of Education. 

5. Seventeenth Annual Report of the Director of Education. 

6. Jessup, W. a. The Teaching Staff. 



BARRIO TEACHER AND BARRIO SCHOOL 57 

7. Betts, G. H. New Ideals in Rural Schools, pp. 92-120. 

8. Dewey, John. The School and the Child. 

9. Ayres, L. p., and Ayres, May. Health Work in the Public 

Schools. 

10. CoFFMAN, L. The Social Composition of the Teaching Force, 

11. Prosser, C. a. The Teacher and Old Age. 



CHAPTER FIVE 

The Barrio School Curriculum 

In the previous chapter it was stated that one of the 
most important requisites for a teacher, if he is to 
discharge his duties effectively, is a good, thorough 
knowledge of the subject matter of instruction. The 
basis of the subject matter to be presented to the child 
is that comprised in the course of study or school 
curriculum. 

CURRICULUM DEFINED 

What is the curriculum.? In the broadest sense it 
is the sum total of individual and social experience 
worthy of transmission and perpetuation. The ele- 
mentary school curriculum is that part of this wealth 
of experience which is selected to be taught to chil- 
dren, through the agency of which these learners be- 
come freer, happier, and more efficient citizens. 

Society offers to each new generation the aggregate 
fruits of its own achievements. From the beginning of 
human history, man has been accumulating culture and 
civilization. Out of the daily lives of the millions of 
peoples of all times — out of their toil and suffering, their 
hopes and dreams and deeds, have come some permanent 
values. Some phases of experience have been tried and 
tested until they have been found typical and fundamental. 
Culture and civilization consist of these valuable and 
more or less permanent aspects of social experience. (1) 

Dr. Paul Monroe enlightens us on the question by 
the following clear presentation of the curriculum and 
its function: 

As interpreted from the point of view of this new mean- 
ing of education, the curriculum is no longer a sacred 
inheritance, possessing absolute and permanent validity, 

58 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 59 

the contents of which the child must master in order to 
attain to an education and to be admitted to the charmed 
circle of the cultured. The curriculum becomes but the 
epitomized representation to the child of this cultural 
inheritance of the race, — of those products of human 
experience which yet enter into the higher and better life 
of man and which the present generation esteems to be 
of value to the individual and of worth to society as a 
whole. Such an appraisement of the values of life must 
change from generation to generation, if there is to be 
progress in life; if life in the present has any value in 
itself beyond mere existence, culture cannot be the same 
for the twentieth century that it was for the eighteenth. 
The formal statement of the elements of character must 
remain much the same; the concrete content must vary 
as life varies. The curriculum must present to the child 
in idealized form, present life, present social activities, 
present ethical aspirations, present appreciation of the 
cultural value of the past. Only as a part of present life, 
that is only as it touches the present life of the child 
through the life of society, can it call forth that interest 
which is essential to the educative process. Hence ... it 
appears that the curriculum must be adjusted constantly, 
though very gradually, so as to reorganize the old culture 
material and to include the new. The curriculum is the 
child's introduction to life, as schooling is the preparation 
for it. The curriculum, then, must really introduce to 
life as it is and as it should be; the school should actually 
prepare. (2) 

CONTROLLING FACTORS 

An adequate curriculum must necessarily take into 
account the child's needs, capacities, instincts, and 
interests. In the selection and elimination of sub- 
jects and topics for the curriculum the controlling 
factors must necessarily be (a) the psychological and 
(h) the sociological. Dr. Payne, in his Public Ele- 
mentary School Curriculum, says : 



60 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

The two fundamental questions regarding the curriculum 
are, first, What are the needs of the civilization in which 
the child is to play an active part? and second, What is 
the nature of the child who is to be fitted to this civili- 
zation? Briefly, education has to do with the experience 
of the race and the experience of the child; the activities 
of the race and the activities of the child; the needs of 
society and the needs of the child. The curriculum must, 
then, provide for the sociological and the psychological 
aspects of human life. (3) 

Professors Button and Snedden enumerate eight 
principles which they deem applicable to the making 
of courses of study for elementary schools. 

The elementary curriculum [they say] should be: 
(a) related to life; (6) flexible, according to the charac- 
teristics of groups to be educated; (c) capable of utilizing 
the social and natural environment of the child; (d) ad- 
justed so as to provide that education which is comple- 
mentary to the educative influences of other agencies; 
(e) integrated in its final effects; (/) so detailed and 
flexible as to permit the teacher much freedom, while 
giving fullest guidance; (g) dynamic or progressive; and 
(h) adjusted so as to reflect local initiative and central 
control and approval. (4) 

THE PHILIPPINE ELEMENTARY CURRICULUM 

The Bureau of Education at present maintains 
courses of study in primary, intermediate, and sec- 
ondary instruction. In the barrio schools the primary 
course is now practically the only course taught. In 
the near future, however, intermediate schools will 
undoubtedly be organized in the larger and more cen- 
trally located barrios. We give below the skeleton 
outlines of the present primary course of study, the 
general intermediate course, the Special Farming 
Course, and the Special Housekeeping and Household 
Arts Course. (5) 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 



61 



PRIMARY COURSE 

{Figures in parentheses indicate the number of recitations a week! the number 
is five unless otherwise stated.) 



Grade I 


Grade II 


Grade III 


Grade IV 


Language, good 


Language, good 


Language, good 


Language, good 


manners and 


manners and 


manners and 


manners and 


right conduct 


right conduct 


right conduct 


right conduct 


Conversational 


Conversational 


Conversational 


Conversational 


English (7) 


English (7) 


English 


English 


Reading (includ- 


Reading (includ- 


Phonics 


Civics, hygiene 


ing phonics) 


ing phonics) 


Reading 


and sanitation 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


(3) 


Spelling (2d se- 


Spelling 


Spelling 


Reading (includ- 


mester) 


Writing 


Writing 


ing phonics) 


Writing 


Music 


Music 


Arithmetic 


Music 


Drawing (3) 


Drawing (2) 


Spelling 


Drawing (3) 


Physical educa- 


Home geography 


Writing (2) 


Physical educa- 


tion 


Physical educa- 


Music (3) 


tion 


Industrial 


tion 


Drawing (2) 


Industrial 


courses: 


Industrial 


Geography 


courses: 


Boys: 8 A, 8B, 


courses: 


Physical educa- 


Boys: 8A, or 


llA, 26, or 


Boys: Any one 


tion 


8B, or 26 for 


club work 


of the follow- 


Industrial 


the larger 


Girls: 7 or 


ing: 9, 10, 


courses: 


boys 


club work 


llA, 26, or 


Boys: Anyone 


Girls: 8A, or 


Time — 40 


club work 


of the fol- 


SB, or 7 


minutes daily 


Girls: 7 (3), 1, 


lowing: 5, 9, 


For very small 




2, 4, 10, or 


10, any ad- 


children stick. 




club work (2) 


vanced bas- 


seed, and peb- 




Time — 60 


ketry, 20, 22, 


ble laying may 




minutes daily 


23, 25, 26, 


be employed 






27, 28, or club 


Time — 30 






work 


minutes daily 






Girls: 7 (2), 
and any one 
of the fol- 
lowing: 1, 2, 
3, 4, 6, 10, 
or club work 
(3) 

Time — 60 
minutes daily 



62 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

GENERAL INTERMEDIATE COURSE 



Grade V 


Gbade VI 


Grade VII 


Conversational Eng- 


Conversational Eng- 


Conversational Eng- 


lish, composition, and 


lish, composition, and 


lish, composition, and 


£rrammar 


grammar 


grammar 


Reading and spelling 


Reading and spellmg 


Reading and spelling 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


Music 1 one half 
Writing / period each 


Music 1 one half 
Writing j period each 


Philippine history and 


government 


Geography 


Geography 


Physiology, hygiene and 


Drawmg (ID) 


Drawing (ID) 


sanitation 


Industrial courses: 


Industrial courses: 


Drawing: 


Boys: Any one of the 


Boys: 26 or club work 


Boys: (2D) 


following: 9, 10, llB, 


(4D) 


Girls: (ID) 


12B, 15, 16, 18, 20, 


Girls: 6 A and 6B 


Industrial courses: 


23, 26» or club work 


(lD),7(lD),andany 


Boys: 23 A, or 23B, 


(4D) 


one of the following: 


or 26, or club work 


Girls: 6A and B (ID), 


1, 2, 4, or club work 


(3D) 


7 (ID), and any one 


(2D) 


Girls: 6 A and 6B 


of the following: 1, 




(ID), and any one 


2, 4, or club work 




of the following: 1, 


(2D) 




2, 4, 21, or club 
work (2D) 



double or eighty-minute period.) 
FARMING COURSE 



Grade V 



Conversational Eng- 
lish, composition, and 
grammar 

Reading and spelling 

Arithmetic 

Agriculture 

Farmwork (3 consecu- 
tive periods daily) 

Drawing, carpentry, 
ironworking, and re- 
pair work on rainy 
days or when neces- 
sary 



Grade VI 



Conversational Eng- 
lish, composition, and 
grammar 

Reading and spelling 

Arithmetic 

Agriculture 

Farmwork (3 consecu- 
tive periods daily) 

Drawing, carpentry, 
ironworking, and re- 
pair work on rainy 
days or when neces- 
sary 



Grade VII 



Conversational Eng- 
lish, composition, and 
grammar 

Reading and spelling 

Arithmetic 

Agriculture 

Farmwork (3 consecu- 
tive periods daily) 

Drawing, carpentry, 
ironworking, and re- 
pair work on rainy 
days or when 
sary 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 63 

HOUSEKEEPING AND HOUSEHOLD ARTS COURSE 



Grade V 


Grade VI 


Grade VII 


Conversational Eng- 


Conversational Eng- 


Conversational Eng- 


lish, composition, and 


lish, composition, and 


lish, composition, and 


grammar 


grammar 


grammar 


Reading and spelling 


Reading and spelling 


Reading and spelling 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


Arithmetic 


Geography 


Hygiene and home 


Hygiene and home san- 


Music (2) 


sanitation (4) 


itation (3) 


Drawing (ID) 


Music (2) 


Philippine history 


Industrial courses: 


Drawing (ID) 


Music (2) 


6A and 6B, (2D); 7, 


Industrial courses: 


Drawing (ID) 


(ID); and any one of 


6Aand6B (2D); and 


Industrial courses: 


the following: 1, 2 A, 


1, or 2, or 4, or 10, 


6A and 6B (2D); 7 


2B, 3, 4A, 4B, 27, 28, 


or 21, or club work 


(ID); and any one 


or club work (2D) 


(2D) 


of the following: 1, 
2A, 2B, 4A, 4B, 21 

or 28, (2D) 



OURS A LIVING CURRICULUM 

Professor Cubberley, in The Portland Survey, de- 
fines a living curriculum as distinguished from a dead 
one in the following words: 

A living curriculum, while it may be, and for the most 
part should be, broadly outlined on paper, has its real 
existence in the mind of teachers, principals, and super- 
visors; it is plastic and adaptable, constantly undergoing 
changes in emphasis of its various parts, even to the 
elimination of some entirely and the substitution of others, 
as the sympathetically studied needs of the particular 
children to be taught seem to require; the living curriculum 
ministers practically to the ever and almost infinitely vary- 
ing needs of boys and girls, no two of whom were made 
alike or destined to be made alike; the living curriculum 
serves as readily and as well the child whose mental 
processes depend on concrete things, as that one who 
readily grasps abstract ideas; the living curriculum serves 



64 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

present needs of every pupil, whether those needs be the 
preparation for the next steps that will lead in due time 
through a college preparatory course to college, uni- 
versity, and a professional career, or whether those needs 
are for skill of hand that will enable a youth to support 
himself honorably, within a year, by rendering some worthy 
service to the community. (6) 

EVOLUTION OF OUR CURRICULUM 

The Philippine public school curriculum has under- 
gone a process of evolution. There have been con- 
stant changes in emphasis of its various parts, even 
to the complete elimination and substitution of entire 
subjects of instruction. A brief discussion of the evolu- 
tion of our curriculum will show that ours is essen- 
tially a living curriculum, not a dead one. 

The primary course of study as organized under the 
American occupation was three years in length, from 
the beginning to the year 1907. Fred W. Atkinson, 
the first General Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
in 1901 had the following to say with respect to the 
elementary subjects of instruction: 

The subjects of study for the Elementary Schools may 
embrace reading, writing, grammar, arithmetic, geography, 
history, physiology, music, drawing, physical exercise, 
manual training, and nature studies. Instruction in the 
English language shall take first place. Teachers are 
forbidden to teach any study not authorized in public 
schools during the legal school hours. (7) 

In October, 1901, nature study was prescribed as 
an elementary school subject. The aim of the subject 
was "to develop in the child a love for the world in 
which he lives, an appreciation of its adaptation to the 
needs of life, the universal presence of natural laws, 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 65 

and some acquaintance with their way of working; 
also a partial knowledge of how the world in which he 
lives may best serve him." (8) 

On January 31, 1907, the proposed lengthening of 
the primary course from three to four years was sub- 
mitted for consideration, by the Director of Educa- 
tion, to division superintendents. (9) The proposi- 
tion of giving greater definiteness to the industrial 
courses was also then taken up. After thorough dis- 
cussion and due deliberation the proposed changes 
with amendments were adopted. In General Circular 
No. 51, s. 1907, dated June 10, 1907, the lengthening 
of the primary course from three years to four years 
was definitely promulgated, the industrial courses took 
a more definite form, and the course of study for pri- 
mary schools was revised and briefly outlined. The 
first three paragraphs of the circular mentioned above 
are here reproduced: 

Experience of the past three years has clearly demon- 
strated the necessity of modifying somewhat the first 
three years of the course of study as previously outlined 
and of lengthening the time devoted thereto to four years. 
This has been made necessary by the creation of the 
demand for instruction along industrial lines and the 
desirability of making the primary course complete in 
itself rather than merely a step preliminary to the inter- 
mediate course. It is believed that the pupil who attends 
school with regularity and pursues his studies with fidelity 
will be able to complete the course as herein prescribed 
within the time allotted. 

The aim of instruction in the primary course is to 
prepare the child to become an intelligent, self-supporting 
citizen. His knowledge of English, arithmetic, and com- 
mercial transactions should be sufficient to enable him to 
transact all of the business he may have, in this language. 



66 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

He should be conversant with the general rights and 
privileges of a citizen and the corresponding duties which 
citizenship enjoins. In addition to this, he should leave 
school with the habit of work definitely fixed and with the 
feeling that manual labor is eminently respectable and 
honorable. He should have acquired a fair knowledge of 
some simple trade or handicraft, and of the hygiene and 
sanitation of the home and village. The course should at 
all times take a practical trend along commercial and 
industrial lines, without detracting from the emphasis to 
be placed upon English, arithmetic, geography, and other 
academic subjects. 

The value of industrial training lies in the cultivation 
of a habit of work, the removal of prejudices against all 
forms of manual labor, the development of manual dex- 
terity and the mental awakening that accompanies it, 
and the introduction of new trades and industries, as well 
as the improvement of the old. (10) 

In 1908 three Instructors were detailed to instruct 
teachers to teach weaving at Normal Institutes. 
That same year industrial work in weaving was pre- 
scribed definitely for primary grades. (11) 

Dr. David P. Barrows, then Director of Education, 
in Circular No. 70, s. 1909, dated July 16, 1909, an- 
nounced the differentiation of the intermediate courses 
of study. The various intermediate courses prescribed 
were the general course, the course for teaching, the 
course for farming, the course for woodwork, the 
course for housekeeping and household arts, and the 
course for business. "The Intermediate School was 
separated from the Primary School Course in order to 
give it a distinct and practical character." (12) 

Director Frank R. White on December 17, 1909, in 
the opening paragraph of the circular entitled "Organ- 
ization of Industrial Instruction," stated: 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 67 

The most important piece of work now before this 
oflSce is the organization, promotion, and proper super- 
vision of industrial instruction. For several years past 
various lines of industrial work have been officially pre- 
scribed for Primary and Intermediate grades and much 
has been done in all school divisions pursuant to these 
requirements of the Course of Study. (13) 

The industrial division of the General Office was 
also created. 

THE BARRIO CURRICULUM AND BARRIO LIFE 

We have long outgrown the day when bare literacy 
was considered a sufficient measure of education 
for the barrio population. Opportunities have become 
greater, and demands have become more pressing that 
we must go farther and see that the barrio school cur- 
riculum is rich enough to be instrumental in adjusting 
the barrio child to a freer, happier, and more efficient 
life. The studies should in reality "represent selec- 
tions and formulations of what is regarded as most 
important in the experience of the race, and hence 
most necessary to transmit for the sake of the future 
society." (14) Especially for those barrio children 
who cannot long stay in the schools it is necessary to 
lay stress upon those subjects that relate to life and 
upon the topics of each subject of study that would 
best minister to the successful adjustment of the 
barrio child to his physical, mental, moral, and social 
environment. There is probably greater need of 
emphasis upon utility in the barrio school than in 
any other type of school. Surely no one should take 
exception to any reasonable and successful movement 
tending to give a greater economic trend to barrio 
education. The school work needs to be vitalized, 



68 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

the course of study needs to be enriched, and methods 
of teaching need to be improved in order that the 
pupils may see, understand, and appreciate the close 
relation between what is learned in school and what 
life requires of them outside school. 

THE SUBJECTS AND SOME GUmiNG PRINCIPLES 

This is not the place to outline the barrio school 
curriculum by subjects. The studies have already 
been indicated in the skeleton outlines of courses 
deemed most adequate for the barrio. A few com- 
ments will be given, merely to emphasize the idea that 
it is highly important and desirable that the curric- 
ulum for barrio schools be aimed directly at the con- 
ditions of the best barrio life in order that the most 
effective adaptation may be secured. 

The published primary and intermediate courses 
of study of the Bureau of Education outline in con- 
siderable detail the academic subjects in the cur- 
riculum. Pertinent suggestions to teachers also are 
given. These are readily accessible to the teachers of 
the public schools. No formal discussion of the tra- 
ditional subjects of study will be given here. All 
that we wish to say about them is that there is neces- 
sity of redirecting and revitalizing instruction in 
them; that the teachers must study the barrio child 
and barrio social life in order to know how to em- 
phasize the subjects, and topics within each subject, 
to the end that what is taught may function in the 
life of the learner and in the life of the community; 
and that much useless matter should be eliminated, 
the aims of instruction in some of the subjects should 
be entirely changed, and the subjects should be re- 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 69 

duced to their proper place in the curriculum. In 
short, the academic studies should be taught in such 
a way that their natural relation to home life and 
farm activities is brought out. With these general 
principles let us touch upon civics, hygiene and sani- 
tation, athletics, industrial work, and agriculture. 

The modern view of civics may be understood from 
the following quotations: (15) 

Civics is a training in habits of good citizenship, rather 
than merely a study of government forms and machinery. 
The broadening field of instruction in civics finds its 
limits only in the ever-widening content of the term 
"citizenship." 

There are, in general, four immediate aims in teaching 
civics : 

To help the child realize that he is a responsible and 
helpful member of several social groups. . . . 

To awaken and stimulate motives that will lead to 
the establishment of habits of order, cleanliness, cheer- 
ful cooperation, sympathetic service, and obedience to 
law. . . . 

To emphasize the intimate and reciprocal relation be- 
tween the welfare of the individual and the welfare of the 
home and society. . . . 

To develop political intelligence and to prepare the 
young citizen for its exercise. . . . 

It is apparent that much of the teaching in civics 
is accomplished indirectly. When a child actively 
participates in cleaning the school and premises; when 
he goes to school with face washed, hair combed, and 
fiinger nails trimmed; when he helps construct a fence; 
when he assists in repairing a broken wall, bench, or 
gate; when he cultivates his garden in the school and 
at home; when a girl sews her own or her little brother's 
or sister's dress; when she helps boil water for drink- 



70 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

ing, or cooks rice well; when a pupil conveys informa- 
tion to his parents or friends regarding preventive 
measures that should be followed during cholera or 
other epidemics; when he is taught to pick up a pail 
of water to help combat a fire; when he trims the 
hedge, mows the lawn, or plants a tree — when a child 
does these or similar acts, he is indirectly but effectively 
learning invaluable lessons in civics. These indirect 
methods, supplemented by the direct teaching of 
civics, are desirable ways and means of training junior 
citizens for intelligent citizenship. 

HYGIENE AND SANITATION 

One of the fundamental subjects to be taught 
barrio boys and girls is hygiene and sanitation. Health 
is basic. It is, therefore, imperative to teach the 
science of health in a practical manner in the barrio 
schools. 

The following excerpt defines in simple terms what 
hygiene is and tells how it differs from anatomy and 
physiology: (16) 

Anatomy, physiology^ and hygiene. In this book, we 
shall study the parts of the body and the way they are 
joined together. This is anatomy. We shall study also 
the work that these parts do. This is physiology. We 
shall study also how to take care of the body so that it 
will not become sick. This is hygiene. 

Hygiene, like civics, may be taught directly and 
indirectly. Proper teaching of this subject is not so 
much a matter of pouring in a great deal of informa- 
tion as a process of thinking, acting, doing, and living. 
The chief aim is to foster the formation of hygienic 
habits and to impart such knowledge of the subject 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 71 

as will make hygienic living intelligible. It is far more 
important for a girl to make a mosquito net and to 
use it when sleeping than it is for her to know the 
different varieties of mosquitoes, their stages of de- 
velopment, and all the theories about malaria. It 
is more desirable that a boy dig a ditch around his 
home and fill up holes, in order to have proper drainage, 
than that he pass an examination on the subject. If 
actual doing accompanies as much as possible the 
book learning in hygiene, the fundamental aims will 
be more effectively realized. 

ATHLETICS 

In 1916 the United States Commissioner of Edu- 
cation reported that "investigations made during 
the year have driven home the fact that rural children 
are more in need of health supervision than city 
children." Dr. Thomas D. Wood of Columbia Uni- 
versity, after investigations conducted in several 
localities and for a number of years, was forced to 
conclude that "country children are less healthy than 
city children." The State Commissioner of Health 
for Oklahoma once said: "Carefully compiled sta- 
tistics gathered from different parts of the country 
show that in every health item the country child is 
more defective than the city child, a most surprising 
reversal of popular opinion. More than twice as many 
country children as city children suffer from mal- 
nutrition; the former are also more anaemic, have more 
lung trouble, and include more mental defectives than 
do the latter." The Minnesota Health Commission 
reports that "tuberculosis is increasing in the country 
because country people are not fighting it as effectively 



72 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

as city people." (17) Our own sanitary commissions 
have found deplorable health conditions in towns 
where investigations have been conducted. Condi- 
tions in most barrios are as a rule worse than in towns. 
The schools should cooperate in improving health con- 
ditions, not only through teaching hygiene and sanita- 
tion, but by a more conscientious compliance with the 
Bureau of Education program of games and athletics. 

INDUSTRIAL WORK 

The barrio school exists primarily to assist children 
to meet their physical, intellectual, moral, social, 
aesthetic, and economic needs. Industrial arts and 
industrial work are a great factor in realizing this goal 
and consequently should have a prominent place in 
the curriculum. The industrial program is designed 
to furnish the child industrial intelligence, industrial 
skill, and industrial sympathy. The industrial train- 
ing of a child helps him, in part, to place himself upon 
an economic plane slightly above the plane of mere 
self-support. This is true directly and indirectly — 
directly when the vocation which the child later 
chooses is based upon the industrial training secured, 
and indirectly when the avocation he pursues is closely 
allied to the industrial work pursued in school. 

The present industrial courses are so numerous and 
so important that it is necessary to devote a separate 
chapter to them. The chapter on vocational educa- 
tion which follows will deal at greater length with the 
vocational phase of barrio education. The writer only 
wishes to record here now his conviction as to the 
necessity and efficacy of domestic science for barrio 
girls and agricultural work for barrio boys in the at- 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 73 

tempt to make barrio education function in barrio 
life. 

When barrio intermediate schools do spring up, as 
they surely will in the future, it is hoped that ef- 
ficient training in housekeeping and household arts 
will be offered barrio girls in model domestic science 
homes. The barrio home and barrio home life should 
be duplicated in somewhat idealized form. The im- 
provement of native foods and processes of prepara- 
tion and preserving of foodstuffs should be given first 
attention. Such activities as sewing, cleaning, decorat- 
ing, beautifying premises, care of babies, etc., should 
also receive emphasis. Where conditions are favorable, 
serious thought on the part of the teachers and ad- 
ministrators should be paid to the advisability of giving 
extension courses to women, young and old, in the 
barrio communities. It is highly desirable that the 
mothers be afforded opportunities for advancement, if 
the standard of living in barrio homes is to be raised. 

In Denmark smallhold schools have been established 
and have done much to make the lot of the small- 
holders more tolerable and their work more profitable. 
The purpose of these schools, in the language of the 
founder, is "to prepare leaders who shall make the 
life of the Danish husmand so honored and recog- 
nized that the young sons and daughters of these 
homes will gladly choose this calling in preference 
to city life." (18) 

Some such purpose should also animate those di- 
rectly concerned with the uplift of our barrio popula- 
tion in the Philippine Islands. To do this, effective 
training in school and home gardening and in agricul- 
ture is essential. Barrio pupils, especially the children 



74 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

of the poor, should be instructed in intensive scientific 
farming and in better methods of working. The 
auxiharies of agriculture, such as poultry raising, the 
raising of other domestic animals, fruit raising, etc., 
should be given due attention. In this connection the 
following excerpt from a well- written article on "The 
Use of Raw Materials in Teaching Agriculture" will 
be helpful: (19) 

Because agriculture is such an important factor in the 
economic life of the nation, it furnishes the basis for a 
thoroughly national education for all who come in contact 
with it, viz., an education for service. Men have spent 
themselves without stint to enlarge the body of agri- 
cultural knowledge and to discover the principles of this 
important science for the benefit of the race. If the work 
accomplished by the investigator is to bear abundant 
fruit, it must be given by instruction to the waiting 
multitude. Thus the place of the teacher of agriculture 
has been made for him. 

You will agree with me when I say that today the 
teaching of agriculture is not all we could wish. There is 
something lacking in the way it comes to our young people. 
It interests them in a measure, but does not grip their 
minds with tremendous power. They like it in a mild 
way for the most part, where there should be the most 
enthusiastic love for it. The whole relation between the 
student and his study lacks a vital something to make it 
virile and gripping and real. 

Agriculture must be taught through its raw materials, 
and in the field if possible. But our teachers have learned 
to teach bookwise. They must learn to teach agriculture 
from the things of agriculture; to read in the soil the 
story of the creation and support of living forms upon the 
earth, and the work of all forces that have made them; 
to search out from the ear of corn its own story of its 
present state of perfection, with the reasons therefor; to 



THE BARRIO SCHOOL CURRICULUM 75 

dig out the great truth of the potatoes from the pota- 
toes themselves; to learn to question nature's products 
and read correctly her answers concerning their being, 
Whence? How? Why? Until we do this, the greatest 
opportunity to teach life lessons and educate for service 
through service lies unused at our hand. 



Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) Betts, G. H. Social Principles of Education, Ch. X. 

(2) Monroe, Paul. History of Education, p. 756. 

(3) See pages 182-183. 

(4) Administration of Public Education in the United States, 

pp. 325-326. 

(5) Service Manual, Bureau of Education, 1917, Ch. U, 

(6) The Portland Survey, p. 128. 

(7) General Circular No. 3, s. 1901. 

(8) General Circular No. 10, s. 1901. 

(9) General Circular No. 11, s. 1907. 

(10) General Circular No. 51, s. 1907. 

(11) General Circular No. 100, s. 1908. 

(12) General Circular No. 70, s. 1909. 

(13) General Circular No. 135, s. 1909. 

(14) Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. II, p. 219. 

(15) Dunn, Arthur W. Civic Education in Elementary Schools as 

Illustrated in Indianapolis. 

(16) RiTCHiE-PuRCELL. Sanitation and Hygiene for the Tropics, 

(17) Duke, E. A. A Guide to Better Schools, p. 26. 

(18) FoGHT, H. W. Rural Denmark and Its Schools, pp. 174-175. 

(19) Welles, W. S. The Use of Raw Materials in Teaching Agri- 

culture. N. E. A., 1914. 

General Bibliography 

1. Course of Study for Primary Grades, with Suggestions to Teachers, 

Bureau of Education. 

2. Course of Study for Intermediate Grades, with Suggestions to 

Teachers. Bureau of Education. 

3. Course of Study for the Elementary School. Western Illinois 

State Normal School, Macomb, Illinois. 

4. The Curriculum and Courses of Study of the Speyer School, 

Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. 



76 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

5. The Elementary School Curriculum, Horace Mann School. 

Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. 

6. Manual of the Elementary Course of Study for the Common 

Schools of Wisconsin. 

7. Payne, Bruce R. Public Elementary School Curricula. 

8. DuTTON and Snedden. Administration of Public Education 

in the United States. 

9. McMuRRY, Charles A. Course of Study in the Eight Grades. 

10. FoGHT, H. W. Rural Denmark and Its Schools. 

11. Duke, E. A. A Guide to Better Schools. 

12. BoNSER, F. G. The Elementary School Curriculum. 

13. Meriam, J. L. Child Life and the Curriculum. 

14. Dewey, John. The School and the Child. 



CHAPTER SIX 

Vocational Education 

"Vocational education" is a term that may be used 
in a broad sense or in a narrow sense. In a compre- 
hensive way the term includes all education which 
makes for any particular calling or "vocation." It is 
all education that makes for definite life work. In a 
more restricted meaning the term includes all educa- 
tion relating to industries and "in this sense would 
include instruction in industrial arts in the elementary 
school, trade and technical instruction designed for 
the industrial worker, and the professional education 
of the engineering schools." (1) It is all education 
that makes for definite industrial calling. 

Although, strictly speaking, all efficient education is 
vocational in that it fits one for a more satisfactory 
performance of life activities, popular usage ordinarily 
makes vocational education synonymous with indus- 
trial education, due no doubt to the fact that the 
direct application of knowledge and skill acquired is 
more easily observable and more frequently observed 
in the industrial vocations than in the professional 
vocations. Vocational education is really broader 
than industrial education. 

In our complex civilized societies, the vocations are 
so many and so varied that it is difficult to make 
accurate and satisfactory classifications of the activities 
in which people are engaged. Due to a lack of well- 
defined and commonly accepted bases of classifications, 
"there are some vocations that are differently classified 
by different persons, and there are others that are not 
definitely classified, or are given doubtful classifica- 

77 



78 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

tion." Certain writers call industrial workers those 
who belong to the vocations that deal entirely with 
materials or material things in the production of 
articles for man's use; commercial workers, those 
engaged in vocations having for their chief object the 
distribution of the products of the industries; and 
professional workers, those who deal primarily with 
human beings rather than with inert matter, the 
results of whose efforts are shown in some direct result 
upon the persons with whom they deal. (2) In our 
barrio communities education should have for its 
ultimate objective the fitting of boys and girls for 
these three types of vocations. For many years to 
come, however, the great majority of the barrio boys 
and girls will follow the industrial pursuits and their 
education will have accomplished much for them if 
it makes them skilled instead of unskilled workers. 
Our paupers and criminals are recruited from the army 
of the unskilled. In Bilibid and other well-regulated 
prisons the energies of the prisoners are directed along 
productive channels, for experience has shown that 
productive labor is a good curative measure for poverty 
and crime. If it is so, then vocational training which 
makes for productive labor must be a still better pre- 
ventive measure in our social life. 

SOCIAL VALUE OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 

Education, to be valuable and practical, must fit 
for individual and social life. That training is most 
effective which best fits the individual for his par- 
ticular vocation. Our educating forces in our barrio 
schools should send the barrio child into the practical 
world with the ability and skill to use what he has 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 79 

learned. His education is adequate in proportion as it 
succeeds in accomplishing this end. 

Vocational education is useful to society as well as 
to the individual. In discussing the social value of 
vocational education, a noted educator said: 

Society is deprived of the increased productivity which 
would result from developing in each and every one of its 
individuals the greatest amount of skill of which he or 
she is capable; and the scarcity of skilled workmen who 
can command good wages, together with the super- 
abundance of unskilled workmen who can command only 
the lowest rate of wages, furnishes a continual handicap 
to the increase in the efficiency of production. The result 
is twofold. First, the rate of production is kept down and 
society is the loser. Second, thousands of human beings, 
who might be useful and happy citizens, live and die in 
poverty and misery, and again society is the loser. (3) 

BARRIO SCHOOL WORK VOCATIONAL AND PREVOCATIONAL 

The school work in the barrio schools is both voca- 
tional and pre vocational. Most of the barrio educa- 
tion now and for many years to come is only primary 
work, and hence it may be vocational or prevocational 
— vocational if it helps children to fit themselves for 
efficient life work, and if the life work chosen is the 
direct result of their schooling, and prevocational if 
it serves only as a preparation for a more specialized 
vocational course, or if it serves only to furnish the 
basis for choosing a vocation and making adequate 
preparation for it. 

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

If this is so, the teacher's task in barrio school 
education becomes twofold: first, to teach the pre- 
scribed subjects to the children so that they may 



80 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

eflPectively function, and secondly, to exercise vocational 
guidance. The duty of vocational guidance is a direct 
and necessary corollary of the vocational idea in 
educational theory. 

Vocational guidance is not mere "job hunting." It 
is not mere work placement, either. It does not 
merely "mean helping boys and girls to find work, but 
to find the kind of work they are best fitted by nature 
and training to do well. It does not mean prescribing 
a vocation. It does mean bringing to bear on the 
choice of a vocation organized information and or- 
ganized common sense." (4) It necessitates studying 
child life and social life and vocational counseling to 
avoid vocational chaos; it necessitates inculcating life 
motives to do away with vocational hoboes; it neces- 
sitates systematic training and sympathetic guidance 
to minimize and, if possible, eradicate the number of 
unemployed, misemployed, or unemployable. 

For several years the more progressive members of 
the administrative, supervisory, and teaching force 
in the Islands have carried on work in the way of voca- 
tional guidance. More recently the General Office 
coordinated the efforts within the Bureau of Educa- 
tion and issued instructions to the field. The im- 
portance of the educational step taken may be seen 
from the following general instructions, which are 
quoted in full: 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 81 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

Manila, January 15, 1918 

General Instructions 
No. 5, s. 1918 

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE 

To Division Superintendents : 

Inasmuch as special vocational intermediate courses 
have been established in addition to the general course, 
it is desirable that educational authorities exercise some 
vocational guidance among the pupils of the public schools 
in order that they may be assisted in properly selecting 
the courses that they should follow after graduation. 

Vocational guidance can properly begin with third- 
grade pupils in an indirect way in connection either with 
conversational English classes or with opening exercises. 
Then in the fourth grade the matter should be taken up 
directly with the pupils in order that they may, with the 
aid of teachers and parents, intelligently select the proper 
course after finishing the primary course. 

Intermediate pupils should also be given vocational 
guidance by means of individual conference, by cooperation 
with parents, and through lectures on the different courses 
which they may follow after graduation and on the differ- 
ent vocations which they may pursue as a means of earning 
their livelihood. 

In order that proper vocational guidance may be 
exercised, the following suggestions are offered: 

(a) Teachers should study the home conditions of the 
people, especially the home life of the families from which 
the pupils come, 

(b) Teachers should study the different pupils, deciding, 
if possible, what are their particular interests and capa- 
bilities. Pupils may be divided into groups, each group 
to have a teacher in charge to act as adviser. 

(c) In conference with parents the teachers should try 
to give some definite suggestions as to what would seem 
to be best for the children when they leave school or when 
they graduate. A talk on the different fields open to the 
youth of the country would also prove helpful. 



82 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

Not many pupils, and indeed not all teachers, know 
that there are different vocational intermediate courses 
maintained by the Bureau of Education. The fact that 
there are a good many agricultural and farm schools where 
good agricultural training can be secured is not widely 
known. Opportunities are offered to high school graduates 
or intermediate graduates to work and study at Munoz 
or to study at Los Banos or to acquire homesteads, but 
these opportunities are not commonly known. Perhaps 
some lectures might be given or essays written in the 
classes in English on the available public lands of the 
Philippines. 

A few should be influenced to take a professional course 
in education in the Philippine Normal School or the Uni- 
versity of the Philippines, and one or two from each 
province who have graduated from the high school course 
may be advised to take the special course either in sten- 
ography or bookkeeping offered in the Philippine School 
of Commerce. The field open to those endowed with 
business ability should be touched upon. 

The giving of vocational guidance should receive the 
consideration of the educational authorities in the hope 
that there may be few misfits among our graduates. The 
problem of vocational guidance should receive particular 
attention during the latter part of the school year, and 
in the cases of pupils who will graduate from the course 
or are intending to leave school. 

The giving of vocational guidance is not a simple 
matter. The choice of a vocation is of supreme im- 
portance, and the duty of influencing a pupil's choice 
demands a broad knowledge of Philippine conditions and 
keen judgment of pupils' capacities. Bad advice is worse 
than none, and supervising officers should delegate the 
giving of vocational guidance only to those best fitted for 
the task. 

VOCATIONAL PROVISIONS 

The present Philippine school curriculum includes 
a great variety of industrial courses. The courses 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



83 



oJBFered in any particular school depend upon the kinds of 
pupils in attendance, the community needs and de- 
mands, the availability of materials, and the adapta- 
bility of courses to local conditions. There is sufficient 
variety to provide opportunity for right choice. In- 
dustrial work is provided for boys and girls in every 
grade of the elementary schools. The industrial pro- 
visions and the industrial achievement of the public 
schools have won the admiration of noted educators 
abroad. Dr. Paul Monroe, while on his trip of in- 
vestigation of our public school system, said that 
"the industrial work in the Philippine schools is pro- 
ducing work of very high quality, in some respects 
not surpassed in any other country." 

The following is a list of the various industrial 
(5) 



courses ; 



lA 


Elementary em- 


9A Mats — Pandan 


19B Baskets — Platted 




broidery 


9B Mats— Buri 


buri 


IB 


Advanced embroi- 


90 Mats— Sedge 


20A Slippers — Fiber 




dery 


9D Mats — Coir 


20B Slippers — Sedge 


10 


Colored embroidery 


10 Hats 


200 Slippers — Other 


2A 


Elementary bobbin 


11 A Baskets — Native 


21A Hand-loom weav- 




lace 


IIB Baskets — Export 


ing 


2B 


Advanced bobbin 


bamboo-rattan 


21B Foot-loom weav- 




lace 


12A B a s k e t s — Ele- 


ing 


2C 


Filet lace 


mentary polangui 


210 Matting 


2D 


Other lace 


12B B a s k e t s — A d- 


22A Carving — Bam- 


3 


Tatting 


vanced polangui 


boo 


4A 


Elementary Irish 


13 Baskets — Vetiver 


22B Carving — Coco- 




crochet 


14 Baskets — Jewel 


nut 


4B 


Advanced Irish 


15 Baskets — Buntal 


220 Carving — Wood 




crochet 


16 Baskets — Stem 


23A Woodwork 


40 


Filet crochet 


17 Baskets — Midrib 


23B Bamboo furniture 


5 


Macrame 


18A Baskets — Coiled 


230 Rattan furniture 


6A 


Cooking 


stem 


24 Sedge handbags 


6B 


Housekeeping 


18B Baskets — Coiled 


25 Brushes and 


7 


Sewing 


fiber 


brooms 


8A 


Hand weaving — 


180 Baskets — Coiled 


26 Gardening 




Soft strips 


strips 


27 Pottery 


8B 


Hand weaving — 


19A Baskets — Platted 


28 Special 




Hard strips 


pandans 


28 Trade course 



84 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

It is clear that in the barrio schools emphasis should 
be given to those industrial courses which tend to 
improve food, clothing, and shelter, and which result 
in raising standards of living.^ 

Even the academic subjects in the barrio school 
curriculum may well be given a vocational trend. If 
this is done, barrio education may indeed more truly 
meet the actual living needs of the people living in 
the barrio communities. To be concrete: the con- 
versational English may well deal with subjects related 
to the work animals of the field, the products of the 
farm, the beautiful things of nature around the home; 
the work in arithmetic may profitably deal with the 
quantitative relations of life within the experience of 
children in barrio communities; and geography may 
effectively present phenomena of nature and the earth 
in relation to the plants that may or may not be 
grown, to the animals that may or may not be raised, 
and to the home life of children. It is believed that 
some such plan would greatly vitahze the school work 
of children. 

1 The value of articles fabricated in the schools of the Philippine Islands 
during the school year 1919-20 is as follows: 

Embroidery Plll,105.73 

Lace, including Cluny, Valenciennes, filet, and crochet . 38,835 . 31 

Plain sewing 479,302.28 

Mats and mat products 11,308. 29 

Coir mats 9,484.51 

Hats 9,976.57 

Baskets 120,450.63 

Slippers 3,598.78 

Rattan furniture 35,292.38 

Municipal shop products 97,857 . 11 

Provincial trade schools and provincial shops 198,435.72 

It is to be noted that the output of the Philippine School of Arts and 
Trades is not included in the last item. 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 85 

SOME REASONS FOR INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES 

The industrial feature is a vital part of the Philippine 
school curriculum. Industrial courses are included for 
reasons which are many and valid, a few of which will 
be enumerated. 

The industrial courses furnish opportunity for 
utiHzing the children's constructive instincts and for 
controlling their destructive tendencies. 

From the time the child begins to pile up sand or blocks, 
through the ages when boys construct tools and dig caves, 
and men design temples, bridges, business blocks, and 
balloons, the constructive instinct is prominent. There is 
a peculiar pleasure accompanying these acts of con- 
struction, perhaps because one feels and perceives in 
concrete form the evidence of his power to do, to modify, 
and to change. The destructive tendency is probably 
only a modified form of the constructive, for it gives the 
same evidence of power to change. (6) 

Industrial work furnishes variety, and sensible 
variety deepens interest in school work. Indeed, 
variety has been said to be the spice of child life. 

The industrial activities, through which pupils are 
given a chance to manipulate, furnish the opportunity 
for motor education or sense training so necessary in 
the education of the normal child. 

The industrial work furnishes concrete experi- 
ence upon which is based much of the abstract con- 
cepts. "Making things . . . naturally precedes mak- 
ing pictures of them or compositions about them." (7) 

The industrial courses are efficient means of in- 
culcating in the minds of youth the dignity of labor. 
Andres Bonifacio said, "Diligence in the effort to earn 
means of subsistence is the genuine love for one's self. 



86 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

one's wife, son, daughter, brother, sister, and com- 
patriot/' 

More directly than any other single feature of the 
course of study, the industrial work makes for pro- 
ductive work and guides youthful power along profit- 
able lines. It helps instill the educative and economic 
value of labor. 

In the first place [a vocational authority writes], 
children like to work, that is, outside of school, and these 
work impulses of youth ought to be organized to con- 
tribute to the educative process. . . . Now, on account of 
the war, they are aroused to a high pitch, and we ought 
to be able to organize them in connection with the new 
work opportunities for higher economic eflficiency as well 
as for higher social efficiency. (8) 

The habit of industry is formed through actual 
doing. The industrial activities foster this desirable 
habit. 

Of all the fortunate experience that can come to a 
child's early life, the habit of industry is of the greatest 
lasting importance. Its application to every phase of 
business and of enterprise is self-evident. To have learned 
to work and to enjoy work, to have acquired a feeling of 
dissatisfaction with idleness and indifference, to have 
attained to a condition where definite results are necessary 
to happiness and contentment, is a state of mind and 
personal being that defines opportunity as success and 
possibility to reality. One of the saddest experiences that 
many healthy children suffer is that of not having an 
opportunity for a normal response to their natural want 
for productive occupation. This want is fully supplied in 
country life. There is work suitable to the power and 
the strength of the youngest pupils, there is abundant 
opportunity for them to engage in productive activities, 
there are privileges to use judgment and to practice 
experiments, there is chance to study and invent, there is 



VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 87 

abundance of service for initiative and for testing to the 
fullest extent, while character is developed and personality 
is expanded. The marvelousness of these thmgs is easily 
realized by those whose pupils have had such training and 
such experiences. (9) 

MAIN OBJECTS 

From the standpoint of the individual the chief aims 
of industrial education are (a) industrial intelligence, 
(6) industrial skill, and (c) industrial sympathy — in- 
telligence to mean insight into the thought process 
and product; skill to mean power and dexterity in 
production; and sympathy to mean desire to work 
and love for the laborer. 

Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. Ill, p. 425. 

(2) WooDLEY, O. I. and M. V. The Profession of Teaching, Ch. I. 

(3) Quoted in Woodley, The Profession of Teaching, p. 224. 

(4) Hanus, Paul H., in Introduction to Bloomfield's The Vo- 

cational Guidance of Youth. 

(5) Service Manual and Courses of Study. 

(6) Bjrkpatrick, E. A. Fundamentals of Child Study, pp. 207-208. 

(7) , p. 208. 

(8) Dean, A. D. Our Schools in War Time — and After. 

(9) Seerley, H. H. The Country School, pp. 14-15. 

General Bibliography 

1. CooLEY, E. G. Vocational Education in Europe. 

2. Snedden, D. The Problem of Vocational Education. 

3. Bloomfield, M. The Vocational Guidance of Youth. 

4. GowiN, E. B., and Wheatley, W. A. Occupations. 

5. Leavitt, F. M. Examples of Industrial Education. 

6. Patten, S. N. The New Basis of Civilization. 

7. Eaton, J. J. Record Forms for Vocational School. 

8. Davis, J. B. Vocational and Moral Guidance. 

9. Dean, A. D. Our Schools in War Time — and After. 

10. Beckwith, H. German Industrial Education and Its Lessons 

for the United States. 

11. Snedden, D. Vocational Education, 



CHAPTER SEVEN 

Achievements of a Practical Character 

One of our most important educational problems is 
to make the good contagious and to check the spread 
of the bad among our barrios. Evolutionary activities 
have been going on in barrio schools and barrio com- 
munities, but the great problem is how to spread the 
good and check the contagion of the bad. Efficient 
education aims to make changes for the better and 
prevent changes for the worse. To realize this in barrio 
education and barrio life there is need of more in- 
spiration and less irritation; deeper sympathy with 
barrio folk and less nagging of them; more treasuring 
of virtues and less measuring of weaknesses. The dis- 
cussion which follows seeks to do more supporting of 
high spots and less reporting on low spots. 

SITES AND BUILDINGS 

An encouraging sign of progress is found in the 
increase of school sites. A school having an adequate 
site has many advantages over one that has not, 
in fulfilling the functions for which it exists. An 
adequate school site must be ample for the following 
purposes : 

(a) to display the building properly; (6) to provide for 
additional buildings to accommodate industrial activities 
or increase in attendance; (c) to provide for gardening; 

(d) to provide grounds for baseball and other games; 

(e) to make possible the placing of the building at a 
distance from other houses, thus allowing a freer circulation 
of air, the maintenance of sanitary conditions about the 
schools, and freedom from noises which may disturb 
school work. (1) 



ACHIEVEMENTS OF A PRACTICAL CHARACTER 89 



At the end of the fiscal year 1916 ^ there were 
school sites, municipal (barrio and central), provincial, 
and insular, exclusive of the Department of Mindanao 
and Sulu. Of this number 1698 were barrio school 
sites, with an area of 8,212,499 square meters, ac- 
quired by donation, purchase, or reservation. The 
total increase in school sites during 1916 was 303, of 
which 299 were municipal sites, 152 being for barrio 
schools. 

The number of municipal sites increased by 21 per cent 
and their area by 14 per cent. The actual area of municipal 
sites acquired was 203.6 hectares; that of insular and 
provincial sites was 28.6 hectares. The increase in the 
value of school sites was approximately 200,200; the 
percentages of increase in the value of provincial and 
insular, central, and barrio sites were 5 per cent, 15 per 
cent, and 6 per cent, respectively. 

The total estimated value of all the school sites is 
P2,501,744, and their total area is 22,378,809 square 
meters.^ (2) 

^ There were in 1919 3647 school sites. Of these 3532 were central and 
barrio school sites, which are classified as follows: first class, 1521; second 
class, 718; third class, 1293. The remaining 115 sites are classified as provin- 
cial and Insular. The total value of provincial and Insular school sites is 
?'1,366,833.74, and the total value of municipal school sites is ^2,736,761.37. 
The increase in the number of school sites during 1918 was 454, of which 
367 were barrio school sites and 87 were central school sites; and of which 
265 were first class, 107 were second class, and 82 were third class. The 
number of first and second class sites obtained during 1919 was almost 
double the number of first and second class sites obtained during 1918. 
The number of third-class sites obtained during 1919 was smaller than the 
number of third-class sites obtained in 1918. The number of barrio school 
sites acquired during 1919 was almost double the number of barrio school 
sites acquired during 1918. The large increase in the total number of sites 
was due principally to the workings of the extension program. Twentieth 
Annual Report of the Director of Education, p. 59. 

2 1919 statistics show a total area of 72,767,801.76 square meters at an 
estimated value of P4,103,595.11. 



90 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

There is undoubtedly much room for improvement 
in the housing of our public schools. Many, especially 
in the barrios, are housed in inadequate temporary 
or semi-permanent buildings, or in rented or borrowed 
private houses. Permanent and fairly substantial 
buildings have, however, been erected in various places. 
In many barrios temporary schools have been built 
by the people in spite of the lack of municipal funds. 
Not long ago the writer visited the division of Bulacan 
and learned that during the last few months the 
people of the province contributed P15,000 cash, 
besides labor and material the value of which it would 
be difficult to estimate. A good civic spirit was shown 
by the people in the barrio of Banban, Bulacan, under 
the leadership of the school authorities, by replacing 
an absolutely inadequate house with a substantial 
wooden school building. In another barrio, Santa Ana, 
the people had a community fish pond from which they 
used to secure money to finance their annual fiestas. 
One day they realized the imperative need of a decent 
school building. The municipality had no money 
available for construction purposes. The barrio in- 
habitants decided to lease the fish pond for a period of 
years and use the money, not for fiestas, but for a 
school building. Today their children are better 
housed and are doing better work in a structure which 
is a monument to the common sense of the community.^ 

^ In 1919 there were 3432 buildings, of which 919 were classified as per- 
manent; 816, as mixed material; and 1697, as temporary or provisional. 
Of the 919 permanent buildings, 475 were constructed according to stand- 
ard plans and are known as Gabaldon school buildings. The increase in the 
number of standard-plan buildings was 16; in the number of special build- 
ings, 36; in the number of mixed-material buildings, 75; in the number of 
temporary buildings, 271. The increase in the number of all buildings 
since 1918 was 398, of which 362 were constructed without Insular assist- 



ACHIEVEMENTS OF A PRACTICAL CHARACTER 91 

In Bacnotan, La Union, a few years ago, the old 
reconstructed school building in the central barrio was 
fast outgrowing its usefulness. The school and town 
officials had foresight and adhered to the policy of 
accumulating money for a permanent building fund. 
A temporary building was needed. Several meetings 
were held to appeal to the people for help. Wood, 
bamboo, and cogon in great quantities were brought 
free to the school site soon after. For three months, 
from eighty to one hundred men worked without a 
single centavo of pay to construct a new building and 
avoid the closing of the school, since the old building 
had been condemned. The only expense to the munici- 
pality was the payment of the services of one carpenter 
who directed the work, and the cost of nails. A large ten- 
room building was erected by the friends of the school as 
a labor of love, a demonstration of practical patriotism. 

These and other examples which could be cited are 
indicative of a new civic spirit, a greater consciousness 
of the obligations of citizenship. They augur well for 
the future of our schools and for civilization. They 
point clearly to the day in a future not distant when 
the people — elected and electors, governors and 
governed — shall cheerfully shoulder the burden of 
increased taxation to meet the needs and demands of 
an ever growing school population and of the more 
exacting standards of school efficiency. 

PHYSICAL WELFARE 

"The physical-culture program of the Bureau of 
Education has been justified by results. The young 

ance. Of the 362 buildings constructed without Insular assistance, 4 were 
concrete; 96 were mixed material; and 262 were temporary. Twentieth 
Annual Reyort oj the Director of Education, p. 57. 



92 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

people in the public schools enjoy better health than 
those who do not attend." (3) The barrio teachers 
have been conscious of their duties as guardians of the 
children's health. Through care for the cleanliness of 
the school and premises and the observance of " Clean- 
Up-Week," through frequent health inspections, 
through instruction in hygiene and sanitation, direct 
and indirect, through a more adequate provision of 
outhouses, through outdoor activities, through the 
increased attention given to the details of seats and 
seating, lighting and ventilation, and through the 
program of physical education, consisting of calis- 
thenics, group games, and athletics, there resulted an 
improvement in the health conditions of at least the 
younger generation of our barrio communities. Better 
habits of hygiene and sanitation are certainly being 
formed. 

INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES 

There have been notable achievements along in- 
dustrial lines. In barrios where hat making is taught 
in the schools, the boys may be seen wearing hats 
that they themselves made, thus acquiring self-reliance 
and bringing about economy in the family purse. A 
few homes are better equipped because of skill ac- 
quired by boys enrolled in bamboo and rattan furniture 
classes. The fact that barrio children are wearing 
rompers and one-piece dresses is in most cases due to 
instruction in plain sewing. The schools have done 
a good deal to instill among the people a deeper sense 
of the dignity of labor. In Meyto, Calumpit, the 
barrio that won first place in the 1916 barrio efficiency 
contest, parents encourage pupils in their industrial 
work. (4) 




hireau of Education, Manila, P. I. 
A permanent barrio school building. 




Bureau >f Education, Manila, P. l. 

A barrio schoolhouse built from voluntary contributions of barrio people. 



ACHIEVEMENTS OF A PRACTICAL CHARACTER 93 

The following is a report of a barrio teacher's achieve- 
ments in the province of Capiz : (5) 

Bayang, a small but progressive barrio in New Wash- 
ington, is situated on an island about three hours by 
"baroto" from the center of the town. The people raise 
rice and a few coconuts and weave "daet," a coarse buri 
cloth. 

Before the schools began using this cloth for making 
bags and cushions, it had been used mainly for partitions, 
curtains, a sort of blanket, and for purposes requiring a 
coarse, tough wrapping material. But when the schools 
began using daet as an industrial material, there was a 
demand for a better grade than that which was being 
produced. 

Finally it was decided to make the cloth in the school 
established in this barrio. The work was started, but 
not much progress was made until a teacher by the name 
of Santiago Bermuda was placed in charge of the school. 
He taught the bleaching of raffia with citric acid instead 
of with acid fruits, and thus obtained materials that were 
very white and pliable yet strong enough to be woven 
easily. He placed an improved foot loom and a hand 
loom in the school and set the pupils to work weaving 
bed, wall, and floor mats, and making cushions, handbags, 
and hammocks. A cloth suitable for light hats was also 
developed. 

As the articles produced were very much superior to 
anything previously made of buri raffia in that locality, 
they were disposed of readily and at advanced prices. 
The people became interested. The attendance grew. 
Soon 105 pupils were enrolled, some of whom came 2 J 
kilometers. Seventy- three were enrolled in the first grade. 
A good temporary building has been constructed. The 
pupils provide their own materials, with the exception of 
the citric acid and some dyes. The people are learning 
the use of the new looms and the new way of bleaching, 
as well as the finer weaves introduced into the school, 
and before long the old way of manufacturing will be 



94 BARRIO LIFE AND BAHRIO EDUCATION 

entirely superseded by the more efficient way in all the 
homes in the barrio. 

Here is an industrial supervisor's report of industrial 
achievements in a barrio in the province of Zam- 
bales: (6) 

Longos, in the town of Cabangan, is a very poor barrio 
of a poor municipality. But in spite of its handicaps 
Longos has maintained a school of one teacher for more 
than 10 years, and during that time its people have built 
8 schoolhouses. 

Notwithstanding the low salary, F12 per month, which 
the teachers receive from the municipality, Longos has 
generally had good teachers who have done some excellent 
work. During the present school year an average daily 
attendance of 25 boys has been maintained. Yet these 
mere children of the first and second grades, during the 
first 6 months of the present school year, made 45 baskets; 
fenced a yard of 300 square meters and a school garden of 
347 square meters; and cleaned, planted, and cultivated 
the garden and 8 home gardens with a combined area of 
1136 square meters. Besides, they cleaned the school 
grounds, kept the fences in repair, and decorated the 
schoolhouse with plants. 

The school garden is one of the best in the province, 
and for several years the premises have been maintained 
in a model condition. The industrial equipment of the 
boys is all furnished by the individual pupils and consists 
of 3 or 4 old hoes, 2 bolos, and a few pocket knives. The 
irrigation system for the garden consists of a few bamboo 
tubes for carrying water. 

The girls of the Longos school are even smaller and 
fewer than the boys. Their work consists in elementary 
sewing and mat weaving. 

Stopping at the barrio of Imugan, Nueva Vizcaya, 
one March day, the writer was pleased to note the 
clean and well-kept building and premises of a two- 



ACfflEVEMENTS OF A PRACTICAL CHARACTER 95 

room school with fifty-eight primary boys and two 
industrious teachers. The academic work was as 
good as the ordinary, the children were courteous and 
happy, their industrial work was good, and they kept 
under good cultivation a garden of more than five 
hectares. 

Gardening activities and Garden Days in the barrios 
have contributed immensely toward making the barrio 
schools more eflScient agencies of social uplift. They 
have been partly instrumental in increasing, varying, 
and improving the diet of the people. Garden Days, 
formerly held only in the larger towns, have now been 
generally observed in the barrios and are fast becom- 
ing in the Philippines what agricultural fairs are in 
the United States. Among the features commonly 
represented in the Garden Day celebrations are the 
following: 

1. Garden products from school and home gardens. 

2. Farm products from farmers. 

3. Seed beds in boxes to show seed testing, methods 
of germination, and transplanting. 

4. Fruit-tree seedlings in bamboo tubes and flowering 
plants in pots. 

5. A newly planted fruit tree, showing protection, 
care, and cultivation. 

6. Well-selected seed palay. 

7. Selected corn seed ears, and corn exhibit. 

8. Shelves filled with bottles of dried seeds labeled, 
and properly preserved. 

9. Fruits, yams, and products of quick-growing 
crops from all sources. 

10. Garden implements, their prices, and where 
they may be secured. 



96 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

11. Exhibit of poultry and of animals. 

12. Boys cooking some vegetable products, as- 
sisted by domestic science girls. 

13. Teacher explaining the various features, animal 
and plant diseases, etc. 

Fruit-tree growing and nursery work have claimed 
the attention of administrative officers in school 
divisions. Some supervisory officers have made it a 
requirement that barrio schools having permanently 
owned sites keep nursery beds for the growing of 
properly selected seedlings and cuttings. These 
nurseries have served as sources of supply for carry- 
ing out the fruit-tree campaigns. In some divisions 
the local conditions have been studied and the fruit 
trees that grow best in the various localities have been 
ascertained. Definite programs of horticultural work 
were adopted and followed. Once a year, during 
Arbor Day, special effort is put forth to care for the 
trees and plants previously planted, to replace those 
that have died, and to plant additional ones. Several 
thousands of trees of economic and aesthetic value 
have thus been grown along the highways, in the 
plazas, in the yards of many homes, and on the school 
sites. The continuation and extension of the activities 
along these lines, so well begun, will years hence bear 
abundant fruitage. 

The corn campaign and corn demonstrations that 
have been conducted have made their influence felt 
even in the remotest barrios. These activities, which 
enlisted the attention and support of the schools in 
cooperation with other agencies, resulted in increasing 
the hectarage of corn, the average yield of corn from 
about 8 cavans to over 11 cavans per hectare, and the 



ACHIEVEMENTS OF A PRACTICAL CHARACTER 97 



use of corn as a staple food. They have served to 
impress upon the pupils and farmers the necessity of 
seed selection, by emphasizing the following sug- 
gestions: (7) 

1. Select and test your seed corn. 

2. Select corn from stalks having two ears. 

3. Select ears with straight rows. 

4. Select kernels from the middle part of the ear, 
not from the tips. 

5. Select mature corn from the field. 

6. Select ears with kernels of uniform color. 

More people learned to judge corn properly, by the 
use of the following score card: 



No. 

1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 

10 

11 

12 

13 



Scores 



Uniformity of exhibit 
Market condition . . . 
Purity of grain color. 

Shape of ear 

Proportion of ear , . . , 

Butts 

Tips 

Space between rows . , 
Per cent grain to ear . 

Trueness 

Shape of grain , 

Uniformity of grains . 
Weight of ears 

Possible credits ... 

Credits given 



Value Credit 



10 
5 
5 

10 

10 

5 

5 

10 

15 

10 

5 

5 

5 



100 



More recently the Director of Education coordinated 
the agricultural and allied activities and authorized 
the organization of boys' and girls' agricultural clubs. 
The members of these clubs engage in contests and 
projects of different kinds, among which are the rice- 



98 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

and-sweet-potato-growing, poultry-raising, pig-raising, 
fruit-growing, vegetable-gardening, corn-growing, and 
cooking contests. The following statistics and esti- 
mates for the school year 1917-18 show in part what 
the Philippine public schools have achieved in agri- 
cultural education: (8) 

Farminq 

Agricultural schools 10 

Farm schools 14 

Settlement farm schools 104 

Gardening 

School gardens 3,960 

Home gardens 54,655 

Improved school premises 1,768 

School lawns 1,234 

Tree Planting 

Fruit trees planted 255,369 

Other trees planted 19,100 

Cattle Raising 

Dairy cattle 16 

Range cattle 60 

Work cattle 125 

Carabaos 147 

Hog Raising 

School with Berkshire hogs 28 

Public breeding boars 28 

Hogs raised 5,900 

Poultry Raising 

Schools with Cantonese stock 50 

Poultry distributed 12,879 

Chickens raised 138,120 

Corn Growing 
(1914-15 Statistics) 

Boys grew corn 43,561 

Girls taught recipes 8,835 

Increased hectarage 46 % 

Increased average yield 90 % 

Increased production 258 % 



ACHIEVEMENTS OF A PRACTICAL CHARACTER 99 

Home Projects 

Poultry projects 4,563 

Hog projects 1,925 

Seed-rice projects 120 

Vegetable projects 64,654 

Corn projects 6,731 

Other farm-crop projects 2,675 

SOCIAL ASPECTS 

In addition to the achievements discussed above, 
there are social activities which have in several places 
received their due share of attention. Athletic meets 
in barrios or under the auspices of barrio leagues have 
served to draw the people together and promote a 
greater feeling of fellowship and spirit of unity. They 
have also provided wholesome entertainment for a vast 
number of people who have only limited opportunities 
for recreation and enjoyment. Educative and educa- 
tional meetings in the form of literary programs, pro- 
grams for special occasions, and civico-educational 
lectures have been held in the schools, making them 
real social centers. These lectures have touched upon 
very useful and practical topics, among which may be 
mentioned the rights and duties of citizens, a garden for 
every home, the care and treatment of domestic animals, 
good manners and right conduct, the prevention of 
diseases, protection of coconut trees from beetles, rice 
culture, corn, etc. These gatherings have been instru- 
mental in bringing about greater cooperation on the 
part of school officials and municipal officials and be- 
tween teachers and patrons of the school. Partly 
through the agency of activities of a social nature, 
there is a closer relation between the school and the 
home. 

One of the problems of barrio education in a broad 



100 BARBIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

sense is to provide wholesome pleasure for the barrio 
folk. The Filipinos are, as a people, pleasure lovers 
and the barrio inhabitants are no exception. Musical 
programs are always welcomed. Folk dancing, con- 
sisting of such dances as the carinosa, surtidos, and our 
primitive dances plus selected folk dances of other 
peoples, if properly taught and presented, would do 
much to furnish wholesome pleasure for the rural 
communities. In our barrio schools, the possibilities 
of the use of the phonograph, the teaching of songs 
that may be sung to guitar accompaniment, and even 
whistling would be in line with the idea of instilling 
more sunshine in the hearts of the barrio children and 
barrio people, and are worth considering. 

The problem of teacherage is an important problem 
in connection with barrio education. A teacher can 
do his best work only when his home surroundings are 
pleasant. Not always is it possible for the teacher to 
secure a satisfactory home for a boarding place. The 
preparation of lessons and plans for the following day 
is necessarily done in the evening, and it is essential 
that the teacher have a private room in which the 
work may be done quietly and properly. It is not an 
occasion for much wonder that barrio teachers often 
do not make adequate preparations for their work, 
that they cannot bear the strain, and that they do not 
long stay in their stations, as long as their home sur- 
roundings are not made pleasant. The suitable so- 
lution in most cases seems to be the provision of a 
teacher's home on the school site. This is not a Uto- 
pian dream. Cases there have been in various places, 
especially in the isolated districts, where teacher's 
homes have been provided. In a barrio of La Union, 



ACHIEVEMENTS OF A PRACTICAL CHARACTER 101 

years ago, the people built not only a school building 
but also a teacher's home on a standard school site 
donated by the friends of the school. The teacher had 
an opportunity to exert an influence of far-reaching 
effect by leading a home life above the standard of 
the ordinary life found in the barrios. The teacher 
had a bed, used a mosquito net, decorated his room, 
and planted shrubs and vines around the house and also 
cultivated a lawn in front of it. A sanitary outhouse 
near by was available. There being no adequate 
water supply, the teacher used only boiled water for 
drinking purposes. In other words, he led a model 
sanitary life which was a practical sermon in right 
living among the people of the community. 

The Department of Mindanao and Sulu has done a 
good deal to make the teacher's life pleasant in iso- 
lated districts by providing teacher's houses. Min- 
danao thus offers advantages in this respect not 
commonly enjoyed in other divisions. Coupled with 
this is the fact that generally the entrance salaries 
for teachers who go to the Department of Mindanao 
and Sulu are higher, and there is the added incentive 
of a privilege of acquiring homesteads. Mindanao is 
teeming with hundreds of thousands of hectares of 
the best and most fertile agricultural land, and the 
young people of foresight would do well to avail them- 
selves of the opportunity offered in the South. It 
should be stated in this connection that not a single 
teacher of a public school has ever been molested. 
This shows conclusively that the people of Mindanao 
and Sulu appreciate their brother Filipinos who go 
there on a mission of friendship and service. 



102 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

THRIFT 

Teachers owe it to themselves to exercise and 
teach thrift. "Thrift in the sense that it must be 
taught by our schools includes more than the mere 
saving of money. This is its most elemental meaning. 
In the wider sense it includes ability to make the most 
of one's environment and of one's self. It includes the 
ability to make a living and at the same time acquire 
a competence. In addition to the saving of money, 
the thrifty person knows how to save time. He knows 
how to conserve and employ his time, his money, 
and his resources to the best advantage." (9) 

Barrio teachers would be personally benefited by 
employing their leisure moments in avocations like 
gardening, tree planting, and poultry raising, besides 
conferring a benefit upon the pupils and the people 
which cannot be overestimated. Wearing clean and 
simple clothes; increasing food production; preserving 
vegetables and fruits ; drying camote and squash; dem- 
onstrating labor-saving devices; economical cooking; 
patronizing the postal savings bank — all these things 
suggest possibilities within the teacher's reach of 
leading an efiicient life and preparing pupils for life. 
The teacher's duty will not have been discharged ef- 
fectively until the pupils have been prepared to earn 
more than enough to feed and clothe themselves and 
until they have been led to form the habit of thrift, 
and this duty cannot be properly discharged unless 
the teacher is the embodiment of what he preaches. 



ACHIEVEMENTS OF A PRACTICAL CHARACTER 103 

Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) Bulletin No. 37. 

(2) Seventeenth Annual Report, Table No. 90. 

(3) Seventeenth Annual Report, p. 35. 

(4) The Philippine Craftsman, Vol. IV, pp. 429-450. 

(5) The Philippine Craftsman, Vol. IV, pp. 355-356. 

(6) The Philippine Craftsman, Vol. V, p. 702. 

(7) Bataan Division Circular No. 1, s. 1916. 

(8) Agricultural Clubs for Filipino Boys and Girls, Organization 

Pamphlet. 

(9) Duke, E. A. A Guide to Better Schools, p. 125. 

General Bibliography 

1. The Philippine Craftsman, Vols. I, 11, III, IV, and V. 

2. National Education Association Addresses and Proceedings, 

Vol. LV. 

3. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 37. School Buildings and 

Grounds. 

4. Bureau of Education Bulletin No. 31. School and Home Garden- 

ing. 



CHAPTER EIGHT 

Some Problems of Organization, Administra- 
tion, AND Supervision 

It has been stated that the historical order in which 
good schools are secured is a zigzag, like all progress, 
and is as follows: (1) 

Money (more of it and more wisely expended) 
Supervision (more and better) 
Money (more, etc.) 

Administration (better) 
Teaching (better, and more of it) 
Money (more, etc.) 

Course of study (broadened and improved) 
Money (more, etc.) 
Textbooks (more and better) 
Money (more, etc.) 
Buildings (better) 
Money (more, etc.) 
Equipment (more, and better) 
Money (more, etc.) 
Then repeat 

Continue to repeat to the end of time. 

This is an effective way of presenting the all-im- 
portant fact that school progress has for its solid 
foundation the financial basis. *'The initial move- 
ment, more money, and a desire for better conduct of 
the schools, must come from the people. Unless there 
is a substantial and a spontaneous effort by the com- 
munity to get better schools, there can be found no 
way for any individuals, whether private citizens or 
public office holders, to secure for the community 
better schools." The financial problem — how to 
secure more money, and its corollary, how it may be 
expended more wisely — therefore becomes a primary 
educational problem. Paradoxical as it might seem, 

1)4 



ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, SUPERVISION 105 

better education necessitates greater burden; free 
schools, increased taxation. 

According to the Director of Education in his 
Seventeenth Annual Report, the cost of education in 
the Philippines is comparatively low. "Expenditures 
for education," says the report, "in 1915 amounted to 
approximately P7,430,243.90, a per capita cost based 
on population of P0.956, as compared with a per capita 
of F13.30 in the United States; of f 0.27 in Java; of 
Tl.lO in Formosa; and of P0.42 in the Federated 
Malay States and Straits Settlements." (2) 

DISTRIBUTION OF SCHOOLS 

The proper distribution of barrio schools is a problem 
which merits thoughtful study and careful investiga- 
tion. Heretofore it seems that local initiative has 
been the chief determining factor. Barrio schools 
have been established where they have been requested, 
or where the people were willing to provide sites or 
erect buildings, and where funds permitted the employ- 
ment of teachers. Local initiative and popular clamor 
and desire are, to be sure, exceedingly important and 
should not with impunity be disregarded. However, 
is it not the part of educational statesmanship to ex- 
ercise foresight and establish schools, not necessarily 
in barrios where people ask for them, but in centrally 
located barrios or those with possibilities of growth.? 
Is it not the part of wisdom to control and guide 
popular desires, even at the risk of inviting adverse 
criticism, and to establish schools only where they 
should be and where they ought to be? Does it not 
pay to map out a district, province, or section, study 
the topography of the region, determine the distribu- 



106 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

tion of population, know the distances between the 
town and each barrio and between the barrios, and on 
the basis of such a study decide with insight and fore- 
sight where barrio schools should be established? 
Surely all will agree that it is necessary to have a well- 
defined plan and policy in the extension of barrio schools 
and the establishment of new ones. As in sanitation, 
prevention is better than cure in barrio education. 

PYEAMIDAL ORGANIZATION 

In the organization of classes teachers and prin- 
cipals have been at times myopic. Schools there 
have been where there were first, second, and fourth 
grade classes but no third grade, or where there was 
but one class of each grade. An arrangement like 
either of these is indicative of a lack of foresight. 
Far-seeing organizers provide for the continuity of 
classes. They look far enough ahead and plan for the 
future. They see to it that there is some sort of py- 
ramidal organization of classes, as it were; that is to 
say, ordinarily in a barrio school there should be a 
greater number of pupils in the first grade, fewer in 
the second, fewer in the third than in the second, and 
fewer in the fourth than in the third, and so on. Just 
what the exact ratio should be it is difficult to say. 
Certainly in a barrio school of four teachers, it would 
be better to omit the establishment of a fourth-grade 
class of from 7 to 10 pupils one year if by so doing 
it would be possible to establish an additional third - 
grade class of from 15 to 25 pupils, or a second- 
grade class of from 30 to 40, or a first-grade class 
of from 40 to 50, and thus insure the continuity of 
classes. In central schools as in barrio schools this 



ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, SUPERVISION 107 

pyramidal organization should prevail. The central 
schools should be organized with a due regard to the 
enrollment of barrio schools which may serve as 
''feeders" to the higher classes. The ratio of pupils 
to be enrolled in the different grades may be de- 
termined at least approximately by a study of the 
retardation and promotion in the various grades, 
together with the growth of the population. 

Before leaving the question of organizing classes, a 
few questions may be asked that may prove suggestive 
for the future. Do supervisory officers study with their 
teachers before school opens Forms 140, Yearly Class- 
room Reports, or Forms XVIII or XVIII-A, with a 
view to having tentative lists of pupils for the different 
classes or sections.? Are the ratings of the preceding 
year being used as much as possible as aids in as- 
signments of pupils to the classes or sections to which 
they belong .f^ Is there any conscious attempt to regu- 
late the size of classes, the number of classes of each 
grade, so as to assure continuity of classes.? 

OVERCROWDED CLASSES AND SPLIT SESSIONS 

In the early days the teachers were confronted with 
the problem of securing pupils to attend schools. 
Now, and this is in itself a healthy sign, conditions 
are exactly the reverse. Not how to get pupils to school, 
but how best to deal with those who may and may not 
be admitted, is the problem. Due to the excessive 
number of pupils desiring admission to the public 
schools, and due to lack of sufficient accommodations, 
teachers, and money, many classes are overcrowded 
in many places. Partly as a temporary remedy the 
"split session" scheme was adopted in places. 



108 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

By split session is meant the practice of having a 
first-grade or second-grade class come to school from 
7:30 till 10:00 in the morning under one teacher and 
another class of third or fourth grade come the rest 
of the morning and part of the afternoon under the 
same teacher. Ordinarily the first-grade pupils under 
the split-session arrangement do not come to school in 
the afternoon, while the second-grade pupils come 
part of the time in the afternoon. 

For the last few years war has been waged against 
overcrowded classes and split sessions. As a result, 
fewer schools now have split sessions. The Director 
of Education in 1916 prescribed the maximum num- 
ber of pupils permitted to attend each class in the 
elementary and secondary schools. The limit was 
rather high, but nevertheless the desirable goal to 
work for was indicated. "If it were possible," the 
Director stated, "at the present time to fix ideal 
standards for attendance, this office would definitely 
prescribe that the highest number of pupils in any 
primary grade should be forty, in the intermediate, 
thirty, and in the years of the secondary course, twenty- 
five." (3) 

DISADVANTAGES OF SPLIT SESSIONS 

It is apparent that split sessions are undesirable. 
Under the split-session plan the course of study cannot 
possibly be followed. The course of study for primary 
grades, page 5, for example, prescribes that in the first 
grade 1300 minutes per week be devoted to the dif- 
ferent activities. According to the split-session plan 
only 750 minutes are allowed first-grade pupils. It is 
thus apparent that under the split-session plan only 



ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, SUPERVISION 109 

one half the required time is being enjoyed by the 
first-grade pupils. It is therefore evident that under 
the split-session plan the course of study cannot be 
followed. 

From the pedagogical standpoint split sessions are 
a menace to the efficiency of the school system, be- 
cause no ordinary mortal can properly handle two 
classes of different grades averaging about 50 to 60 
pupils, have blackboard work put up, correct pupils' 
papers, prepare lesson plans, and conduct good recita- 
tions. 

It is also harmful for the pupils of the different 
grades, because pupils of different ages and sizes are 
compelled to sit at the same seats. Consequently, 
this anomaly exists: either the seats are too high for 
the small pupils, or they are too low for the larger 
pupils. It should be borne in mind that we are try- 
ing to work for properly adjusted school desks. 

The existence of split sessions makes it impossible 
to carry out the blackboard work required of teachers. 
Those who have seen model classes are aware that the 
sizes of letters used by the teacher and pupils for the 
different grades vary and that the distances between 
the lines on the papers and on the blackboards also 
vary for different grades. 

It is also an administrative and financial waste for 
pupils to be compelled to attend classes under the 
split-session plan, because it is obvious that if pupils 
attend only half of the time required by the course of 
study, the vast majority of them cannot finish the work 
of the grade in one year. 

The two-division program recommended in the 
Course of Study for Primary Grades, in the "Sug- 



110 BARRIO LIFE AND RARRIO EDUCATION 

gested Daily Programs for Primary Schools" and 
again in General Instructions No. 18, s. 1917, cannot 
be carried out under the split-session plan. 

It is also diflScult to maintain the best order and 
discipline under the split-session arrangement. 

From all points of view, therefore, the best educa- 
tional interests demand that the split-session plan be 
minimized and in the future it should be completely 
eradicated. 

PROMOTION, RETARDATION, ELIMINATION, AND 
ACCELERATION 

The problems of promotion, retardation, and ac- 
celeration are still far from being clearly understood. 
It is known in a general way that among the main 
causes of low promotion, retardation, and elimina- 
tion are split sessions, overcrowded classes, unfavorable 
school environment, ineffective classroom instruction, 
inadequate supervision, poor transportation and roads, 
and poverty of families. It is not definitely known, 
however, to what extent each is responsible, nor is it 
known what percentage of failures is due to each of 
the causes. 

What may best be done to improve our percentage 
of promotion and the system of grading and promotion.'^ 
What changes should be effected to enable a greater 
number of pupils to finish each grade on the average 
of one school year.^^ What are the most efficacious 
remedies to minimize retardation and elimination.'^ 
How may the normal age of children for each grade 
be determined.'^ How much departure from the 
normal age should be allowed within the same section 
or class .^ What should be done with the very dull 



ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, SUPERVISION 111 

pupils? with the very bright pupils? Is it not desir- 
able to accelerate the brighter pupils? If so, how may 
it best be done? These and related questions are 
among the unsolved problems of education. 

A FEW ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY PROBLEMS 

Along administrative and supervisory lines there are 
many problems awaiting further study and investiga- 
tion. A few of these may be mentioned in the form of 
queries: Can there be found a better basis of school 
taxation that will be more welcomed by the people 
and will increase funds for educational problems? 
How may regular increase of revenues be secured, 
an increase which may be in a measure proportionate 
to the regular annual increase of the number of pupils 
and to the necessary extension of educational work? 
What improvements are necessary in the manner of 
providing sites and buildings for the barrio schools 
that they may be more speedily provided and that 
they may be adequate for the needs of the future? 
What may be done further to make the barrio school 
a more effective social center? What additional re- 
sponsibilities and obligations may safely be given to 
the school as a social institution without unduly im- 
pairing its efficiency in the performance of the func- 
tions peculiarly its own? From what duties may the 
school be freed in order that it shall minister more 
effectively to individual and social needs? How may 
the administration of barrio education — academic, 
physical, vocational, social — be carried on in order 
that the education received may function more ef- 
fectively in the barrio home? What possible and de- 
sirable activities may be carried on profitably under 



112 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

the auspices of the barrio school to reach the adult 
population? 

To these and many more problems which are more 
or less administrative in character may be added 
supervisory problems that are equally complex and 
manifold: Is the redistricting of provinces feasible 
and necessary to secure closer, more frequent, and 
more efiPective supervision of barrio schools? What is 
the desirable size of a district for purposes of su- 
pervision? To what extent do the availability of 
transportation and the condition of roads affect the 
effectiveness of supervision? Educationally, what is the 
desirable unit of supervision? What method or system 
should be adopted by district supervisory officers in 
order to maintain a proper balance among their mani- 
fold duties — clerical, reportorial and routine, ad- 
ministrative, inspectorial, and supervisory? What is 
the basis of distinction between these main duties? 
Is it not desirable that the fundamental difference 
between inspection and supervision be consciously 
recognized by the supervisory officer? How may the 
supervisory officer make his visit of the greatest value 
to the barrio teacher and the barrio school? How 
should his time be arranged and allotted so that the 
barrio schools get their proportional share of super- 
vision of the extensive, economical, and professional 
type? What attitude should the supervisory officer 
take, and how should he deal with the barrio teacher so 
that he may be looked upon not as a spy but as a 
genuine friend and helper? What standards should 
be used to measure results and progress in barrio 
schools? How should measurement of results and 
progress be carried on? How should criticisms be 



ORGANIZATION, ADMINISTRATION, SUPERVISION 113 

offered in order that they may encourage greater 
achievements on the part of pupils and teachers? 
These by no means form an exhaustive list of super- 
visory problems, but they are among the most urgent 
and vital ones. 

In connection with the problems of supervision, 
the following special points are deemed essential: (4) 

1. That the duty of a supervisory officer ordinarily 
is to make good better, and bad good. 

2. That real supervision, not mere inspection, is to 
be exercised. 

3. That all supervisory officers insist on progress to 
be made week by week and month by month, and 

4. That in the course of their supervision they 
actually measure results and ascertain the work that 
is being done and the progress that is being made. 

Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) Chancellor, W. E. Our Schools: Their Administration and 

Supervision. 
{2) Seventeenth Annual Report, p. 50. 

(3) General Instructions No. 29, s. 1916. 

(4) Syllabus on Philippine School Supervision. 

General Bibliography 

1. Bachman, Frank P. Problems in Elementary School Ad- 

ministration. 

2. Ayres, Leonard P. School Organization and Administration. 

3. DuTTON and Snedden. Administration of Public Education in 

the United States. 

4. FoGHT, Harold W. Rural Denmark and Its Schools. 

5. Hodges, W. T. Impcrrfant Features in Rural School Improvement. 

6. Betts and HL\ll. Better Rural Schools. 

7. Cubberley, Ellwood P. The Portland Survey. 

8. Chancellor, W. E. Our Schools: Their Administration and 

Supervision. 



CHAPTER NINE 

Standardizing Barrio Schools 

Progress among barrio schools in the past has been in 
spots more than in streams. This is due to several 
factors, but chief among them is the lack of a well- 
defined set of points and principles to serve as a basis 
for all to work. It is not the contention, of course, 
that there should be fixed points for which to work 
for all time. When the points to be considered are 
fixed, the schools are in danger of becoming fossilized. 
Whatever may be the points proposed as a basis for 
standardization, they must be changeable, depending 
upon changing conditions, in order that educational 
work may be progressive. There must be also dynamic 
principles behind the measures or standards, to give 
life to school work. 

ENDS SOUGHT IN STANDARDIZING 

The movement for the standardization of barrio 
schools which is here urged has for its chief object to 
make definite the desirable lines of progress leading 
school officers and progressive patrons of the school 
to think together, plan together, and pull and push 
together. To standardize schools means to urge 
balanced progress. This is done by measuring the 
efficiency of instruction, by increasing the number of 
children and adults benefiting by school activities, by 
aiding in the adjustment of school training to social 
life, by minimizing, and if possible eliminating, waste, 
and by setting up definite objectives. 



lU 



STANDARDIZING BARRIO SCHOOLS 115 

SOME PRECEDENTS IN STANDARDIZING 

In West Virginia a score card was adopted for use 
among county superintendents. The efficiency score 
card provided for rating country schools is as fol- 
lows: (1) 

Pcnnts 

1. Grounds 10 

2. Building 15 

S. Light and ventilation 8 

4. Decorations 8 

5. Water supply 10 

6. Equipment 22 

7. The teacher _27 

Total possible 100 

County superintendents rated as Class A those 
schools scoring between 90 and 100 points; Class B, 
those between 80 and 90; Class C, those between 70 
and 80; Class D, those between 60 and 70; and Class 
E, those below 60. 

In a county in Pennsylvania years ago a scheme of 
standardizing was begun which resulted in raising 
the standard and in the improvement of many one- 
teacher schools in the county. The following is a 
brief description of how the scheme worked: (2) 

There are 350 one-teacher schools in the county. The 
standard set is high. The scoring is done by the super- 
intendent. A four-page circular is put into the hands of 
each teacher, setting forth 50 minimum requirements for 
the standard school. The teacher and the organization 
count 75 points, the physical equipment, including build- 
ing, grounds, sanitary arrangements, etc., 25 points. 
Most of the 350 one-teacher schools have come up to the 
requirements and have received diplomas. The names of 
these schools are published in a monthly bulletin issued 
by the county superintendent. 



116 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

In many counties in Oregon, wall posters are supplied 
to the schools, containing a list of standard school 
points. 

When the county superintendent visits the schools, he 
determines in what points the school is satisfactory and 
places a silver star on the poster before the point. When 
the school has been awarded a star for each point on the 
poster, it is given a pennant bearing the words, "Standard 
School." 

The list is as follows: (3) 

Flag — Must be flying in good weather 

Schoolhouse — Properly lighted and ventilated 

Conditions of schoolroom — Attractive 

One standard picture — One new picture during the year 

unless four good ones are already in room 
Drinking water — Either fountain or tank and individual 

cups 
Outbuildings — Sanitary all the time 
Walks — From road to house; from house to outbuildings 
Grounds — Drained; attractive; flowers on grounds or in 

rooms 
Spelling contests — Every pupil entered 
Discipline — Good order at all times 
Satisfactory work — On part of both teacher and pupils 
Attendance — Average, 95 per cent for year 
School board — Teacher's monthly reports must show at 

least one hour's visit by one or more members of the 

board each month 
Teacher — Attending at least 50 per cent of teacher's 

institutes and subscribing to at least one educational 

paper 

In several states of America, either at the initiative 
of state educational departments or under the leader- 
ship of county boards of education or of county super- 
intendents, considerable activity has been displayed in 



STANDARDIZING BARRIO SCHOOLS 117 

late years to improve the physical conditions of the 
rural schools. (4) 

One plan in general use, which has been successfully 
tried by several county superintendents, is as follows: 
First, the authorities fix a definition of a "standard," 
"superior," or "improved" school. They then prepare 
score cards on which the schools may be rated; and a 
banner, diploma, or plate is awarded to each school whose 
score is sufficiently high. In many cases the scheme con- 
cerns itself not alone with the physical conditions of the 
school, but also with the teacher, the course of study, the 
program, and with special features of instructional work. 

In 1911 some such plan was inaugurated in Illinois 
by the state department of education. Two types of 
rural and village schools are recognized, "standard" 
and "superior." The state department awards a 
plate bearing the words "Standard School" or "Su- 
perior School" to the school reaching the desired 
standard. The school receiving it is privileged to in- 
stall the plate on the front of the building, where it 
may easily be seen by passers-by. A school is approved 
and the plate is awarded only after a personal in- 
spection by a representative of the state department 
of education. The plate may be recalled at any time 
if the school falls below the standard requirements. 
The representative of the state department makes visits 
for the purpose of determining whether schools are or 
are not entitled to recognition, upon the invitation of 
the county superintendent. The following main 
points are considered: yard and outhouses, the school- 
house, furnishings and supplies, the organization and 
the teacher. Each of these points is subdivided. 

The * standard school' is one * which has all that a 



118 BARRIO LIFE AND PARRIO EDUCATION 

school must have to be a good school.' A 'superior 
school' is one * which has everything that a school 
should have to make it the best school.'" 

In Alabama a scheme similar to the Illinois plan has 
been adopted. There schools are also approved as 
"standard" or "superior." They are scored on a 
percentage basis, a maximum of 20 per cent being al- 
lowed on buildings and grounds, 24 per cent on equip- 
ment, 26 per cent on vitalizing agencies, and 30 per 
cent on administration. The points considered differ 
somewhat from those given on the Illinois require- 
ments. 

Any school scoring 100 per cent is designated "standard" 
and is awarded a special diploma by the State department 
of education. Should a school make a total of 120 points, 
by grading on any or all of the items considered on the 
score card, it is entitled to a diploma as a "superior 
school." Schools graded below 100 per cent on the 
standard school basis are ranked as Grade A, B, or C, 
and as "scrub" schools if their rank is below 60 per cent. 
The scoring is done by the State supervisor of rural schools 
if practicable; otherwise by a local committee appointed 
by the State superintendent of public instruction. 

PHILIPPINE EXPERIENCE 

In some divisions or districts there have been at- 
tempts more or less to standardize schools by direct- 
ing the attention of the force to certain definite points 
to work for. At the beginning of the school year 
1916-17, supervision in the Division of Mindoro was 
systematized. This was done by leading the super- 
visory officers to become conscious of the fourfold 
main divisions of their work and outlining in some 
detail the duties incidental to the work of supervi- 



STANDARDIZING BARRIO SCHOOLS 119 

sion. (5) This was followed by the adoption of a 
division form for inspection and supervision which 
served to control effort in the direction of improving 
certain definite features. The division form was 
mimeographed on a sheet of paper about 8 by 10 
inches, one side of which was filled by the several 
points which are indicated in the copy of it given 
below; the other side was left blank for supervisory 
officers to write in it the helps and suggestions given 
to teachers and schools visited. One copy was left 
with the teacher or school concerned, one was for the 
supervising teacher, and one for the division office. 
The following is a copy of the division form in question: 

Form for Inspection and Supervision 
District School or Teacher 



I. General Information: (Use "Y" for "Yes" and "N" 
for "No" in blanks.) 

1. Site: adequate ; free from weeds ; free from 

papers and rubbish ; fenced permanently ; 

temporarily ; permanent improvement plan made 

; approved ; lawn Bermuda grass, any ; 

kept ; mowed ; walks, laid out ; paved 

with coral ; cement ; used ; hedges, 

violet ; hibiscus ; trimmed . 

2. Building and rooms: clean ; adequate ; hy- 

gienic . 

3. Equipment: Desks, sufficient ; adjusted 



aligned ; cared for ; Blackboards, framed 

; of proper heights ; four in each class ; 

ruled, single line ; with indelible pencil ; of 

prescribed distances ; Teacher has chair ; 

table ; aparador ; Program accurate ; 

posted _\ framed in wood with glass ; Waste 

basket, one in each room ; used by pupils . 



120 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

4. Outhouses: one for girls ; one for boys ; screened 

with vines ; used ; pit system ; pail 

system ; fly proof ; kept sanitary . 

5. Forms, reports, and records: 

Form I, neat ; up-to-date ; accurate ; 

Form II, and 24 or 48 kept daily ; accurately ; 

Forms 151, 152, 153, satisfactory ; Forms 100, 

101, satisfactory ; Forms 137, 138, satisfactory 

; Reports, records, correspondence, filed ; 

systematically . 

6. Attendance: punctual ; regular ; continu- 

ous . 

7. Decorations: G. M. & R. C. pictures, complete ; 

framed in wood with glass ; properly put up ; 

Potted plants used ; Good pots and tripods used 

; Choice orchids hung ; large pictures, 

framed in wood with glass used . 



8. Discipline: Formation of lines orderly ; unnecessary 

noise made ; mechanical movements automatized 

; pupils' places definite ; known and followed 

; girls march first ; Voice, in class, moderate; 

Teacher's ; pupils' ; Discipline based upon 

fear ; interest in work ; respect of authority 

; love of order . 

9. Athletics: Schedules posted ; followed ; every- 

body engaged in athletics ; Regular practice 

carried on . 

10. Industrial: Courses prescribed followed ; everybody 

has work ; materials ; tools necessary . 

11. Academic: Course of study known by teacher ; 



Copy easily accessible ; Texts sufficient for 

pupils ; Supplies sufficient ; properly cared 

for . 

II. Some Points for Supervision of Classroom Instruction 

Aim: Definiteness, adequacy, clearness. Aim of recita- 
tion" conducted and aim in lesson plan compared. 
Was it realized? 



STANDARDIZING BARRIO SCHOOLS 121 

Subject Matter: Organization. Suitability as related 

to aim. Adaptability to grade and pupils. Relation 

to texts, outlines and course. 
Methods: Relation to subject matter and aim; kind 

of procedure; nature of question and answers. 
Teacher: His strong points and weak points. 
Help and Suggestions Given. (Write on the back of 

forms in triplicate.) 

Supervisory Officer's signature 



It will be noticed that the first part of the form 
mentions a good many matters of general character 
which supervisory officers should pass upon in their 
visits, filling out the blanks with the appropriate letters 
as directed in the form. With teachers, principals, 
and supervising teachers making note of the points 
needing improvement, a greater degree of cooperation 
can be secured to effect such changes as tend to im- 
prove conditions. The second part of the form has 
to do with supervision of instruction. From the very 
nature of the case, it is necessary to mention the main 
points in general terms. In the exercise of supervision, 
the supervisory officer must be guided by certain 
educational principles, and this being so, it is not pos- 
sible to put down very specific points, to be followed 
in every recitation. Certain points, however, are 
emphasized, namely: that in both the academic and 
industrial activities the aim, subject matter, and method 
should be the three important points to receive atten- 
tion. The teacher's strong and weak points should also 
be considered. If the suggestions given, together with 
the several points taken ud, were studied and acted 
upon in our schools, especially in the barrios, concerted 
action could be taken to effect improvement. (6) 



122 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

During the same school year, systematic effort was 
put forth in the Division of Pangasinan to secure greater 
efficiency in school work. In a circular issued early 
in the year, certain special features were emphasized, 
although conscious effort was made to maintain a 
proper equilibrium among the various phases of 
school work. Competition was carried on among the 
various elementary schools, including the barrios. 
Certain well-defined bases were specified, among which 
were academic work, industrial work, athletics, school 
buildings, school grounds, hygienic conditions and 
ethical conditions, school libraries and other activities, 
support of the school by the community, improvement 
of the schoolhouses by the community, industrial 
museum, property reports, and office work. Later in 
the same school year a more detailed efficiency score 
card was issued, giving a maximum credit of 35 points 
to academic work; 20 points to industrial work; 
10 points to athletics; 12 points to school buildings, 
equipment, and grounds; 5 points for hygienic and 
ethical conditions; 8 points to the school library; 4 
points to various school activities; 6 to property reports 
and office work. The best schools in each district 
were then rated by the division office. The general 
average for each school rated highest in each district 
was then found, and the winners were thus determined. 

PROPOSED REQUIREMENTS FOR STANDARDIZING 
BARRIO SCHOOLS 

On the basis of a study made of American and 
Philippine experience, a plan is here proposed as a basis 
for standardizing barrio schools. As fundamental 
principles of standardization the following are con- 



STANDARDIZING BARRIO SCHOOLS 123 

sidered: (a) sites and buildings, (6) equipment, (c) 
organization, instruction, administration, and supervi- 
sion, (d) vitalizing agencies and miscellaneous points. 

There will undoubtedly be difference of opinion as 
to the special points that should be included in the 
standardization card and also in the distribution of 
weights. As stated in the first part of this discussion, 
it is not desirable that the points be absolutely fixed 
and unchangeable. At certain stated periods when 
there is a shifting of emphasis and as certain conditions 
become more or less settled, it is undoubtedly wise 
to change the points and perhaps revise the distribu- 
tion of weights. Nevertheless, the writer feels that 
the proposed requirement for standardizing is worthy 
to be tried. Experience with it will undoubtedly lead 
to improvement of the plan. 

It is proposed that the barrio schools in each dis- 
trict or in each province be placed in competition, 
having for a competitive basis the points indicated 
herein or such additional points as the particular 
local conditions may seem to warrant. It is suggested 
that a plate or a diploma be awarded to a barrio school 
fulfilling the requirements, bearing the words "Model 
School," "Standard School," or "Superior School." 
If these terms are not acceptable, the schools may be 
ranked as Class C, Class B, Class A, or as third class, 
second class, or first class. The school to be classified 
as model school, or as Class C or third class, should 
secure at least 85 to 90 points; the school to be classi- 
fied as standard school, Class B or second class, should 
secure a rating of at least from 90 to 95 points; and 
the school to be classified as superior school. Class A 
or first class, should secure a rating of 95 points or over. 



124 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

Tentative Form for Standardizing Barrio Schools 



I. Sites and buildings — 10 points .... 

(Select only 10 items) 

1. Site: adequate, first class 

2. Site: permanent plan, improvement, 

cleanliness 

3. Building adequate 

4. Building: safety, strength, and con- 

struction 

5. Building: clean, painted, in good re- 

pair 

6. Two outhouses provided 

7. Outhouses: clean, sanitary, screened 

8. Good walks provided 

9. Good strong fence 

10. Sufficient trees planted and cared for 

11. Lighting and ventilation of building . 

12. Cleanliness and beauty of premises . . 

II. Equipment — 10 points 

(Select only 10 items) 

1. Desks: sufficient, clean, and adjusted 

(required) 

2. Desks: alignment and arrangement . 

3. Teacher's chair and table 

4. Aparador 

5. Blackboards: at least four in 1 class, 

6. Objects for teaching 

7. Pictures, properly framed and hung . 

8. Mottoes and programs, properly 

framed and hung 

9. Globes, maps, charts 

10. Library 

11. Water deposit with clean artesian 

well water or boiled water 

12. Care and filing of circulars, instruc 

tions, forms 

13. Place and shelves, or care of property 

III. Organization, Instruction, Ad- 

ministration, and Supervision — 
70 points 



Points 
allowed 



10 



1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

10 

1 



70 



Points given 



D.S 



Supv 



P 

or T 



Average 



STANDARDIZING BARRIO SCHOOLS 125 

Tentative Form for Standardizing Barrio Schools — Continued 



10. 



Classes of proper size 

Pupils properly classified and graded 

Pupils furnished with texts 

Course of study studied and followed 
Lesson plans satisfactory, up-to-date 

Teacher: (12) 

Personality and character. , 
Training and experience .... 
Knowledge of subject matter 

Teaching methods 

Use of English 

Influence on pupils 

Influence on community .... 
Attitude to co-workers and 

criticisms 

I. Quality of work as a whole . 
Blackboard work: neatness, suit- 
ability 

Discipline 

Academic 

Aim: definiteness, adequacy, 

suitability 

Subject matter: organization, 
suitability as related to aim, 
adaptability to grade and pupils, 
relation to texts, outlines, 



a. 
b. 
c. 
d. 
e. 
/. 
9- 
h. 



course 

Method : Organization, relation 
to subject matter and aim, kind 
of procedure, nature of questions 

and answers 

Industrial work 

a. Courses prescribed followed 

and suitable 

b. Work and materials for every 

pupil 

c. Pupils' understanding of work 

and processes 

d. Pupils' skill in work 

c. Pupils' love of work 

/. Proper tools used 



Points 
allowed 



2 
2 
1 
1 
3 
12 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 

1 
1 

2 

2 

20 



7 
10 

1 

1 

1 
1 
1 
1 



Points given 



D.S. 



Suvp 



P 

orT 



Average 



126 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

Tentative Form for Standardizing Barrio Schools — Continued 



g. Speed of work 

h. Quality of work 

i. Disposition of products .... 

j. Industrial English 

11. Athletics 

a. Schedule prepared, posted, 

and followed 

b. Everybody takes part and ex 

ercises regularly 

c. Clean, wholesome spirit 

d. Teacher participates in pupils' 

games 

Athletic courtesy 

Use of English 

Attendance: punctuality, regularity, 

continuity 

Care of books, supplies, and other 
property 



/• 



12. 



13. 



IV. Vitalizing Agencies and Miscel 

laneous — 10 points 

(Select only 10 items) 

1. Agricultural clubs 

2. Food-production activities 

3. Nurseries and fruit-tree campaign . . . 

4. Musical organizations 

5. Social and literary societies 

6. Parents' meetings 

7. Indoor decoration 

8. Outdoor aesthetics: hedges, flowers, 

roses, lawn, climbing vines, or 
chids, potted plants, etc 

9. Reading circle 

10. Special days: Arbor and Bird Day, 

Rizal Day, Garden Day, Health 
Day 

11. Civico-educational movements. . . 

12. Better-baby contests 

13. School contests 

Total 



Points 
allowed 



Points given 



D.S. 



Suvp. 



P 

orT 



Average 



STANDARDIZING BARRIO SCHOOLS 127 

It will be noted that in the above form there are 
six columns. The first column contains the items con- 
sidered; the second column contains the maximum 
points allowed; the third column allows the points 
given by the Division Superintendent or his authorized 
representative; the fourth column allows space for 
points given by the supervising teacher; the fifth 
column allows space for points given by the principal 
or teacher; the sixth and last column allows space 
for the average. The rating awarded may of course 
be in terms of units or fractions. It is not expected 
that each and every point will be rated by three dif- 
ferent persons. It is, however, desirable that each 
item considered be rated by at least two different ones. 

In running a competition among barrio schools in 
a district or province, the following suggestions should 
be borne in mind: A careful plan should first be pre- 
pared; the enthusiasm of supervising teachers, prin- 
cipals, and teachers should be enlisted; the objects 
should be explained, special emphasis being given 
to the desirability of raising our barrio schools to a 
higher plane; the details should be worked out and 
submitted for discussion to a committee of representa- 
tives from the districts or schools concerned before 
definitely launching the campaign; equal opportunity 
as far as possible should be given to all ; the method of 
scoring should be made clear so that it may be uni- 
formly applied; and an impartial judge or committee 
should be selected to render the final decision in order 
that the competition may be fair, just, and reasonable. 
It may also be advisable to agree upon the terms or 
classification to be used; the method of financing the 
diplomas or plates to be awarded, and the way they 



128 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

are to be awarded. It should be clear to all that a 
pennant, diploma, or plate awarded may be recalled 
if the school falls below the standards set after secur- 
ing the symbol of recognition. 

If the plan herein outlined is carried out properly; 
if the standards set are high and the method of rating 
strict; if the symbol of recognition is awarded on the 
basis of real merit, then the movement for standardiz- 
ing barrio schools will result in increasing the efficiency 
of barrio education and enriching barrio life. 

Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) Commissioner of Education Report, 1913, Vol. I, p. 172. 

(2) Ibid. 

(3) Ibid., p. 174. 

(4) Discussion of recent tendencies in Commissioner of Education 

Report and in Duke's A Guide to Better Schools. 

(5) Division Circular, Mindoro, No. 20, s. 1916. 

(6) Division Circular, Mindoro, No. 21, s. 1916. 

(7) Division Circulars, Pangasinan, No. 44, s. 1916; No. 50, 

s. 1916; No. 4, s. 1917; No. 16, s. 1917; No. 19, s. 1917. 

General Bibliography 

1. CuBBERLEY, E. P. Rural Life and Education. 

2. Betts and Hall. Better Rural Schools. 

3. Bachman, Frank P. Problems in Elementary School Ad- 

ministration. 

4. McMuRRY, Frank M. Elementary School Standards. 

5. Cook, Katherine M., and Monahan, A. C. Rural School 

Supervision, Bulletin, No. 48, 1916, U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
cation. 

6. Hodges, W. T. Important Features in Rural School Improve- 

ment, Bulletin No. 25, 1914, U. S. Bureau of Education. 

7. U. S. Commissioner of Education Report, 1913, Vol. I, pp. 157-210. 

8. U. S. Commissioner of Education Report, 1914, Vol. I, pp. 99-125. 



CHAPTER TEN 

Vitalizing Agencies of Barrio Life 

We are fast learning to take the right outlook on barrio 
life. Our barrio inhabitants must learn that agricul- 
tural life can be complete in itself. The barrio farmers 
and their families are not now as much as formerly 
subject to witty lampooning or ridicule. The farmer 
as a factor in our national life is fast coming into his 
own. "With the conquest of the soil came new, 
hitherto unknown powers." Education blazed the 
path. Education, too, shall enable the farmer's son 
or daughter to "walk with kings nor lose the common 
touch." 

Denmark's example: an inspiration 

The example of Denmark with her population of 
about 3,000,000, sixty-one per cent of which may be 
classed as rural, should be a great inspiration to us. 
"Taken as a whole, nature has treated Denmark in a 
stepmotherly fashion so far as riches of soil are con- 
cerned. The fact that the country is producing great 
crops from the land is not because of any fresh, virgin 
fertility or other natural resource, but because of the 
application of a broad, general intelligence to the work 
of building up a naturally meager soil, forcing it to 
produce more and more." This much handicapped 
country, with a raw and inhospitable climate the 
greater part of the year, has waged a mighty war 
against nature. "7n less than two generations a poorly 
ordered agricultural system has been changed to the 
best on the European continent." Read her great 
achievement as expressed in the amount of annual 
exports: (1) 

129 



130 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

In 1881, just before cooperative enterprise among the 
farmers had begun to be felt, the net export in the three 
farm staples — butter, bacon, and eggs — was valued at 
$12,010,000. In 1904 it had increased to $68,070,000, 
and only eight years later had reached the surprisingly 
large sum of $125,000,000. Such figures as these can be 
explained only in a rapidly growing knowledge of agri- 
cultural production and a scientific handling and marketing 
of the products — all of which has come to the people 
through a system of schools peculiarly adapted to rural 
needs. 

Ponder long on Denmark's record! Ponder longer 
on what we could do and should do with our popula- 
tion, four times that of Denmark, with a country 
blessed with natural resources untold, and with soil 
in fertility unexcelled! 

VITALIZED SCHOOLS 

A new barrio life is dawning. Conditions are rapidly 
changing, necessitating readjustments. The barrio 
school has been for some time the most eflScient social 
institution in barrio communities, and if it is to hold 
this enviable position it must be vitalized. The barrio 
school needs a new and better-paid teacher, more ef- 
fective teaching, and expert supervision which has for 
its primary object the increasing of teaching power 
and teaching effectiveness. It needs a school official 
deeply sympathetic with, and interested in, child and 
community life. The vitalized barrio school must be 
consecrated to the service of child development and 
community uplift. We shall now pass in rapid review 
some of the vitalizing agencies of barrio life and barrio 
education. 



VITALIZING AGENCIES OF BARRIO LIFE 131 

GARDENING 

Gardening for boys and cooking and plain sewing 
for girls are the most important industrial courses for 
barrio children. The primary object of gardening is 
to help elevate the standard of hving and to increase, 
vary, and improve the diet of the people. The barrio 
school must help the farmer to obtain greater returns 
from his labor. Our farmers are among the hardest- 
working and most frugal elements in our population, 
but much of their labor goes for naught through lack 
of proper knowledge, skill, and tools to obtain the 
largest returns from the labor expended. It is safe 
to state that they could increase their products and 
profits manifold with little or no additional labor if 
they would put into practice the simple lessons of 
proper seed selection, stock breeding, irrigation, and 
cultivation. "And the most natural and effective way 
to put the farmer into possession of the scientific knowl- 
edge and skill required is through the rural school." (2) 

AGRICULTURAL CLUBS 

In 1916 agricultural clubs for Filipino boys and 
girls were organized. (3) These clubs provide op- 
portunity for boys and girls in our public schools to 
enroll in one of the following contests: vegetable- 
gardening contest, hog-raising contest, chicken-raising 
contest, corn-growing contest, fruit-growing contest, 
and cooking contest. These activities are encouraged 
primarily as home projects, and pupils doing satis- 
factory work and meeting the requirements are given 
credit. The policy has been not so much to enroll 
the greatest possible number of members in these 
clubs as to enroll only those who are likely to make a 



132 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

success of the projects undertaken. An additional in- 
centive was given last year when club uniforms and 
club pins were recommended for use among club 
members. New clubs are established only as efficient 
supervision and efficient work can be assured. Last 
year the club boys in fruit growing planted 27,592 
fruit trees. Other boys planted 83,524 fruit trees. 
The following statistics in hog raising and poultry 
raising for the year 1917-18 will be of interest: 

Hog raising: 

School with Berkshire hogs 28 

Public breeding boars 28 

Hogs raised 5,900 

Poultry raising: 

Schools with Cantonese stock 50 

Poultry distributed 12,879 

Chickens raised 138,120 

FRUIT TREES AND NURSERIES 

There are other features of barrio school activities 
that promote agricultural development. Practically 
every division has a fruit-tree campaign going on, 
and the barrio schools play a prominent part. In 
these campaigns division superintendents plan the 

* A very marked advance in animal husbandry was made during 1919. 
The school farms were better supplied with work animals than ever before. 
All animal projects have thrived. This feature of the school work has done 
much to improve the livestock of farmers residing in localities where schools 
are located. The extent of the animal-husbandry work undertaken is shown 
by the fact that on March 31, 1919, there was a total of 111,556 chickens at 
860 schools; a total of 4826 hogs at 313 schools; a total of 250 heads of range 
cattle at 9 schools; and a total of 360 carabaos and bullocks at 123 schools. 

During the year 1919 public school pupils raised and disposed of 243,268 
chickens and 10,504 hogs in addition to the chickens and hogs kept for breed- 
ing purposes at the schools. Practically all the meat consumed by pupils 
who are subsisted on school farms is raised by the pupils themselves. 
Twentieth Annual Report of the Director of Education, p. 40. 



VITALIZING AGENCIES OF BARRIO LIFE 133 

work for the division, study the fruit trees or plants 
most suitable for cultivation in the different localities, 
and encourage all the students — and require a certain 
number — to engage in this work. The Arbor Day 
activities of course are eminently agricultural in their 
nature, and this annual festivity has been broadened 
in its scope in recent years through the action of the 
Governor-General, who annually issues a proclamation 
making Arbor Day a general festivity for the people of 
these Islands. For the last few years, in connection with 
the observance of Arbor Day, emphasis in the planting 
of trees was placed in the following order: 

(1) First emphasis should be given papayas, bananas, 
and all trees the fruit of which will increase the food supply 
of the people. 

(2) Next, emphasis should be given such shade trees 
as have an economic value, due to the commercial value 
of the wood or seed. 

(3) Of third importance should be those shade trees 
which are also ornamental. 

Nurseries are necessary adjuncts to the fruit-tree 
campaign. In the care and cultivation of school 
nurseries emphasis is placed upon the propagation, 
distribution, and planting of trees possessing economic 
value. During the school year 1916-17, 1114 schools 
had nurseries, more than 95,000 fruit trees were dis- 
tributed, more than 255,000 fruit trees were planted 
and cared for by pupils, and more than 190,000 trees 
of all kinds were growing in school nurseries at the end 
of the school year. (4) 



134 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 



FOOD-PRODUCTION CAMPAIGN 

The gardening work, the agricultural club activities, 
the cultivation of nurseries, and the fruit-tree campaign 
are all activities carried on in schools that contribute 
toward the general food-production campaign. Our 
schools, during the school year 1917-18, were asked 
by the Director of Education "to double the area of 
school and home gardens and at least to double the 
production." Commenting on the response the Di- 
rector said, "Reports recently received indicate that 
these results are being attained and in a number of 
cases surpassed." (5) 

While the educational phase is held to be the first 
essential in this movement, the economic phase also 
is given due attention. The estimated value of garden- 
ing and agricultural products for the school year 1919-20 
is as follows: 

Gardening P633,000 

Settlement farm schools 165,554 

Farm schools 56,086 

Agricultural schools 119,505 

Agricultural clubs 364,656 

Total Pl,338,801 

The campaign for better and greater food pro- 
duction is a patriotic and necessary movement. It is 
a movement that should be kept up vigorously and 
indefinitely. In this great and important task the 
barrio schools should play an active part. In addition 
to the work definitely outlined for them, they should 
assist by serving as a medium of information to adults, 
by lectures on agricultural subjects, and by demon- 



VITALIZING AGENCIES OF BARRIO LIFE 135 

strating, through Garden Days and alhed activities, 
improved methods of farming, poultry, and animal 
culture. 

SPECIAL DAYS 

One special day, Garden Day, has already been re- 
ferred to. The barrio school can widen the scope of 
its influence through the observance of other special 
days. Among these may be mentioned Arbor Day 
and Bu-d Day, Health Day, and Rizal Day. The 
annual celebration of Arbor Day and Bird Day fur- 
nishes an excellent opportunity for barrio people to 
get together and to think and learn about the eco- 
nomic and aesthetic value of trees, plants, and birds. 
We are not generally conscious that "birds are a 
great aid to man in his battle against insects. Were 
it not for the birds, those insects which destroy fruits, 
grains, and trees would be far more abundant than 
they now are. They can be made less abundant if 
the insectivorous birds are encouraged and protected. 
Birds are the farmers' friends." (6) There should be 
a celebration dedicated to improvement of health and 
sanitary conditions. A national Health Day at least 
once a year would be a great blessing to the country. 
On such occasions one or two matters should be given 
prominence each year. A Health Day devoted to en- 
couraging the use of boiled water for drinking purposes, 
where there is no pure artesian well-water supply, 
and to the improvement of outhouses would work 
wonders in the Philippines. Rizal Day is of course 
widely observed, and rightly. The people become one 
in the observance of December 30, because they direct 
their thoughts to the life and virtues of their greatest 
national hero. Rizal Day programs are, like every- 



136 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

tiling else, becoming more practical. In 1917 one of 
the prominent features of the Rizal Day celebration 
in Manila was the Better Babies' Contest. Certainly 
there is no single feature that is more in accord with 
the spirit of Rizal than this, which makes for the re- 
duction of infant mortality, for the improvement of 
children, and for the strengthening of the race. 

CIVICO-EDUCATIONAL LECTURES 

The Philippine Legislature, in Act No. 1829, pro- 
vided that "in each municipality of the Philippine 
Islands, where possible, principally in the barrios of 
the same, popular civico-educational lectures shall be 
dehvered in any of the dialects of the locality." (7) 

The lectures shall treat of the rights and duties of the 
citizen, the Municipal Code and Provincial Government 
Act, the organization of the Central Government, of 
knowledge or popular notions of certain common crimes, 
and of any laws which are important in the judgment of 
the Director of Education, as well as of industry and 
commerce, especially the mining industry, manufacturing, 
the breeding and care of animals, and the care and irrigation 
of plants and trees; and in addition of a varied knowledge 
of geography and history. (8) 

Teachers and other persons qualified have served as 
lecturers. Among the subjects of lectures prepared 
are Good Citizenship, Good Manners and Right Con- 
duct, Agriculture and Other Industries as Honorable 
Vocations, Rice Culture, Corn, Coconut Beetles, A 
Garden for Every Home, Care and Treatment of 
Domestic Animals, The Care of Children, and Pre- 
vention of Diseases. 



VITALIZING AGENCIES OF BARRIO LIFE 137 

SOCIAL AND LITERARY ACTIVITIES 

As it exists at present, the barrio community offers 
very limited opportunities for social mingling in 
neighborhood groups. There is danger of social mo- 
notony and stagnation. "The nature of the work both 
in home and in field, the insistent and pressing toil 
during the greater part of the year, and the isolation 
of the farm, all tend to an unvarying sameness of life 
and experience." (9) Unrelieved routine is deadening. 
The barrio school must see and feel its obligation, in 
the absence of other institutions, to undertake the 
task, to relieve this monotony and prevent mental, 
social, and moral atrophy. This it can do in part by 
providing greater opportunities for literary and social 
gatherings and entertainments. 

School contests — academic, industrial, athletic — 
have a great drawing power, and school patrons, if 
invited or informed, attend and enjoy these contests 
where children whom they know take part, and per- 
haps other children from the town and other barrios. 
Literary and social programs on some evenings or on 
special days would be a source of profit and enjoy- 
ment to our barrio communities, and they would also 
serve to strengthen the position of the barrio school 
as a social center. Musical organizations may be 
formed, consisting of school children or outsiders, to 
enliven these entertainments and perhaps give modest 
concerts on Sundays or holidays, or to furnish music 
for some social gatherings. Parents' meetings, properly 
organized and conducted, also would serve a good 
purpose in bringing parents together and in forming a 
closer relationship between parents and teachers, 
thus closing the gap between the school and the home. 



138 BARMO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

LIBRARIES AND READING CIRCLES 

Much has been done in the past in the direction of 
encouraging teachers and pupils to acquire the reading 
habit. The development of libraries in the barrio 
schools is the next logical step. Meanwhile the ad- 
visability of organizing barrio reading circles should 
be carefully considered. These circles may from time 
to time hold meetings which even illiterate adults 
may attend. For the benefit of these barrio adults 
some of the members may be assigned to read or sum- 
marize orally some of the more important news and 
events. Activities of this nature would in a measure 
serve to give many barrio folks a peep into the world 
of events of which they are now more or less ignorant. 

ADULT SCHOOLS 

In this connection an extension activity of the barrio 
schools designed to meet the adults may be men- 
tioned, the organization of adult classes especially for 
the illiterates. Once a week on some evening, or 
twice a month, the busy teacher may hold classes for 
them, to teach very elementary lessons in the three 
R's — "Reading, 'riting, and 'rithmetic." From time 
to time teachers of central schools may be invited to 
help in these classes. If these classes accomplish 
nothing more than to teach men now illiterate to write 
their names and candidates' names, they would serve 
a useful purpose in assisting to secure a clean ballot 
and a cleaner body politic. 



VITALIZING AGENCIES OF BARRIO LIFE 139 

DECORATION AND ART 

One of the many things that would bring greater 
contentment in barrio hfe is improvement in indoor 
art and decoration and landscape gardening. ' The 
inartistic devices consisting of unsuitable pictures, 
shabby and poorly placed objects, withered leaves, 
festoons of gaudy colors, and unattractive artificial 
flowers, now so common in barrio home and school, 
should be replaced with more appropriate decoration. 
A limited number of portraits of heroes, and other 
good pictures well framed and suitably placed, if 
brought into the homes and school, would help a great 
deal. 

Ours is a country with unlimited possibilities for 
beautifying. Outdoor art and landscape gardening 
must be given attention. There should be a greater 
activity put forth in the cultivation of lawns, hedges, 
roses and other flowers, and decorative plants. Out- 
houses, fences, and houses that now are eyesores could 
be made attractive by the use of climbing vines, shrubs, 
and trees for screening purposes. In all this question 
of outdoor art, cleanliness, neatness, and orderliness 
are paramount. 

CONCLUSION AND APPEAL 

Barrio schools must tend toward the practical; yet 
we must realize that there is culture in agriculture, 
in manual labor, and in the practical subjects that 
concern us daily. What makes our country great? 
The products, the human products, of our public 
schools. 



140 BARRIO LIFE AND BARRIO EDUCATION 

Not high-raised battlement or labored mound, 

Thick wall or moated gate; 
Not cities proud with spires and turrets crowned; 

Not bays and broad armed ports, 
Where, laughing at the storm, rich navies ride; 

Not starred and spangled courts, 
Where low-browed baseness wafts perfume to pride. 

No! Men, high-minded men. 
With powers as far above dull brutes endued — 

In forest, brake, or den — 
As beasts excel cold rocks and brambles rude; 

Men who their duties know. 
But know their rights, and, knowing, dare maintain. 

The field of barrio education offers unlimited oppor- 
tunity for the young man or woman who takes barrio 
teaching seriously. Barrio education demands barrio 
leadership. The teacher must give himself unstintedly 
to his work, withholding nothing of time, personality, 
or effort in the service of his school. The problem of 
barrio life and barrio education is a national problem. 
We must bear in mind the words of that great leader 
and prophet, Woodrow Wilson, in expressing his faith 
in the common people and common schools: 

We overlook the fact that the real sources of leadership 
in the community come from the bottom. We must see 
to it that the bottom is left open; we must see to it that 
the soil of the common feeling, of the common conscious- 
ness, is always fertile and unclogged, for there can be no 
fruit unless the roots touch the rich sources of life. 

And it seems to me that the schoolhouses dotted here, 
there, and everywhere over the great expanse of this 
nation will some day prove to be the roots of that great 
tree of liberty which shall spread for the sustenance and 
protection of all mankind. 



VITALIZING AGENCIES OF BARRIO LIFE 141 

Sources of Quotations and References 

(1) FoGHT, H. W. Rural Denmark and Its Schoolsy Ch. I. 

(2) Betts and Hall. Better Rural Schools, p. 26. 

(S) Organization Pamphlet, Agricultural Clubs for Filipino Boys 
and Girls. 

(4) Table 18, p. 145, Eighteenth Annual Report of the Director of 

Education. 

(5) Eighteenth Annual Report of the Director of Education, p. 50 

(6) Bulletin No. 50, Bureau of Education, p. 43. 

(7) Act No. 1829, sec. 1. 

(8) Act No. 1829, sec. 3. 

(9) Betts and Hall. Better Rural Schools, p. 246. 

General Bibliography 

1. Kern, O. J. Amxmg Country Schools. 

2. Betts and Hall. Better Rural Schools. 

3. CuBBERLEY, E. P. Rurol Life and Education. 

4. . The Improvement of Rural Schools. 

5. FoGHT, W. H. Rural Denmark and Its Schools. 

6. Duke, E. A. A Guide to Better Schools. 

7. Carver, T. N. The Principles of Rural Economics. 

8. Wilson, W. H. The Church and the Rural Community 

9. Bailey, L. H. The Country-Life Movement. 

10. . The Training of Farmers. 

11. Davenport, Mrs. E. Possibilities of the Country Home. 

12. Carney, Mabel. Country Life and the Country School. 

13. MoNAHAN, A. C, and Wright, R. H. Training Courses for 

Rural Teachers. 

14. Eighteenth Annual Report of the Director of Education, 



APPENDIX A 

FOURTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE) 

Third Session ) 



H. No. 142S 



(No. 2782) 

An Act Appropriating the Sum of Thirty Million 
Seven Hundred and Five Thousand Eight Hundred 
AND Twenty-four Pesos for the Extension of 
Free Elemental Instruction to All Children of 
School Age 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives 
of the Philippines in Legislature assembled and by the 
authority of the same: 

Sec. 1. There is hereby appropriated, out of any funds 
in the Insular Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sum 
of thirty million seven himdred and five thousand eight 
hundred and twenty-four pesos, or such part thereof as may 
be necessary, for the purpose of extending the facilities of 
free elemental instruction to all the children of school age 
of the Archipelago. Of this sum there shall be available for 
investment on the first of January, nineteen hundred and 
nineteen, the sum of seven hundred and thirty-five thousand 
pesos; on the first of January, nineteen hundred and twenty, 
the sum of three million nine hundred and nineteen thousand 
pesos; on the first of January, nineteen hundred and twenty- 
one, the sum of six million three hundred and ^ve thousand 
four hundred pesos; on the first of January, nineteen hundred 
and twenty-two, the sum of eight million seven hundred and 
ten thousand four hundred and forty pesos; and on the 
first of January, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, the 
sum of eleven million thirty-five thousand nine hundred and 
eighty-four pesos. 

The sums so appropriated shall be in addition to the sums 
appropriated in the annual appropriations for the Bureau of 
Education and shall be expended with the approval of the 

143 



144 APPENDIX A 

Council of State. The unexpended balances at the end of 
each one of the aforesaid years shall revert to the general 
funds of the Insular Treasury. 

Sec. 2. This Act shall take effect on its approval. 
Approved, December 6, 1918. 



APPENDIX B 

The following provisions of the New Land Law, Act 
No. 2874, "An Act To Amend and Compile the Laws Rela- 
tive to Lands of the Public Domain, and for Other Purposes," 
are quoted for the information of teachers who may wish 
to secure homesteads or who may wish to assist persons in 
securing homesteads: 

Chapter III, Forms of concession of agricultural land 
Sec. 11. Public lands suitable for agricultural purposes 
can be disposed of only as follows, and not otherwise: 

(1) For homestead settlement. 

(2) By sale. 

(3) By confirmation of imperfect or incomplete titles: 

(a) By administrative legalization (free patent). 
(6) By judicial legalization. 

Chapter IV, Homesteads 

Sec. 12. Any citizen of the Philippine Islands or of the 
United States, over the age of eighteen years, or the head of 
a family, who does not own more than twenty-four hectares 
of land in said Islands or has not had the benefit of any 
gratuitous allotment of more than twenty-four hectares of 
land since the occupation of the Philippine Islands by the 
United States, may enter a homestead of not exceeding 
twenty-four hectares of agricultural land of the public 
domain. 

Sec. 13. Upon the filing of an application for a home- 
stead, the Director of Lands, if he finds that the application 
should be approved, shall do so and authorize the applicant 
to take possession of the land upon the payment of ten 
pesos, Philippine currency, as entry fee. Within six months 
from and after the date of the approval of the application, 
the applicant shall begin to work the homestead; otherwise 
he shall lose his prior right to the land. 

145 



146 APPENDIX B 

Sec. 14. No certificate shall be given or patent issued for 
the land applied for until the land has been improved and 
cultivated. The period within which the land shall be 
cultivated shall not be less than two nor more than five 
years, from and after the date of the approval of the appli- 
cation. The applicant shall, within the said period, notify 
the Director of Lands as soon as he is ready to acquire the 
title. If at the date of such notice or at any time within 
the two years next following the expiration of said period, 
the applicant shall prove to the satisfaction of the Director 
of Lands by affidavits of two credible witnesses, that he has 
resided in the municipality in which the land is located, or 
in a municipality adjacent to the same, and has cultivated 
the land continuously since the approval of the application, 
and shall make affidavit that no part of said land has been 
alienated or encumbered, and that he has complied with all 
the requirements of this Act, then, upon the payment of ten 
pesos, he shall be entitled to a patent. 

Sec. 15. At the option of the applicant, payment of the 
fees required in this chapter may be made in annual install- 
ments. These payments may be made to the municipal 
treasurer of the locality, who, in turn, shall forward them 
to the provincial treasurer. In case of the delinquency of 
the applicant, the Director of Lands may, sixty days after 
such delinquency has occurred, either cancel the application 
or grant an extension of time not to exceed one hundred 
and twenty days for the payment of the sum due. 

Sec. 16. If at any time before the expiration of the 
period allowed by law for the making of final proof, it shall 
be proved to the satisfaction of the Director of Lands, after 
due notice to the homesteader, that the land entered is not 
under the law subject to homestead entry, or that the home- 
steader has actually changed his residence, or voluntarily 
abandoned the land for more than six months at any one 
time during the years of residence and occupation herein 
required, or has otherwise failed to comply with the require- 



SECURING OF HOMESTEADS 147 

ments of this Act, the Director of Lands may cancel the 
entry. 

Sec. 17. Before final proof shall be submitted by any 
person claiming to have complied with the provisions of 
this chapter, due notice, as prescribed by the Secretary of 
Agriculture and Natural Resources, shall be given to the 
public of his intention to make such proof, stating therein 
the name and address of the homesteader, the description of 
the land, with its boundaries and area, the names of the 
witnesses by whom it is expected that the necessary facts 
will be estabhshed, and the time and place at which, and 
the name of the officer before whom, such proof will be 
made. 

Sec. 18. In case the homesteader shall suffer from mental 
alienation, or shall for any other reason be incapacitated for 
exercising his rights personally, the person legally represent- 
ing him may offer and submit the final proof on behalf of 
such incapacitated person. 

Sec. 19. Not more than one homestead shall be allowed 
to any person; but if a homesteader has made final proof as 
provided in this chapter and is occupying and cultivating all 
the land applied for and the area thereof is less than twenty- 
four hectares, he may apply for an additional homestead 
on an adjacent tract of land, provided the total area of 
both parcels does not exceed twenty-four hectares, and with 
the understanding that he shall with regard to the new tract 
or additional homestead comply with the same conditions 
as prescribed by this Act for an original homestead entry. 

Sec. 20. The cancellation of a homestead entry not due 
to any fault of the applicant shall not be a bar to his apply- 
ing for another homestead. 

Sec. 21. If at any time after the approval of the appli- 
cation and before the patent is issued, the applicant shall 
prove to the satisfaction of the Director of Lands that 
he has complied with all the requirements of the law, but 
cannot continue with his homestead, through no fault of 



148 APPENDIX B 

his own, and there is a bona fide purchaser for the rights and 
improvements of the appHcant on the land, and that the 
conveyance is not made for the purposes of speculation, then 
the applicant, with the previous approval of the Secretary 
of Agriculture and Natural Resources, may transfer his 
rights to the land and improvements to any person legally 
qualified to apply for a homestead, and immediately after 
such transfer, the purchaser shall file a homestead application 
to the land so acquired and shall succeed the original home- 
steader in his rights and obligations, beginning with the 
date of the approval of said application of the purchaser. 
Any person who has so transferred his rights may once again 
apply for a new homestead. Every transfer made without 
the previous approval of the Secretary of Agriculture and 
Natural Resources shall be null and void and shall result in 
the cancellation of the entry and the refusal of the patent. 

Sec. 22. Any non-Christian native desiring to live upon 
or occupy land on any of the reservations set aside for the 
so-called *' non-Christian tribes" without applying for a 
homestead, may request a permit of occupation for any tract 
of land of the public domain open to homestead entry under 
this Act, the area of which shall not exceed ten hectares. 
It shall be an essential condition that the applicant for the 
permit cultivate and improve the land, and if such culti- 
vation has not been begun within six months from and 
after the date on which the permit was granted, the permit 
shall ipso facto be canceled. The permit shall be for a term 
of five years. If at the expiration of this term or at any 
time theretofore, the holder of the permit shall apply for a 
homestead under the provisions of this chapter, including 
the portion for which a permit was granted to him, he shall 
have the priority; otherwise the land shall be again open 
to disposition at the expiration of the five years. 

For each permit the sum of five pesos shall be paid, which 
may be done in annual installments. 



APPENDIX C 

The Government of the Philippine Islands 

Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources 

Bureau of Agriculture 

CIRCULAR NO. 77 



SAVING AND INVESTING 



HOARDING MONEY IS NOT THRIFT. THRIFT IMPLIES 
THE WISE USE OF MONEY BOTH IN SPENDING 
AND SAVING 

The rural credit movement attempts to organize coop- 
erative associations in each municipahty which will develop 
into village banks. There are (on December 1, 1919) 410 
incorporated associations with over P600,000 capital, paid 
in by over 50,000 shareholders. In many cases shares were 
bought by public spirited persons who do not intend to 
borrow but who wish to help a worthy institution in its 
early struggles against indifference, prejudice, and ignorance. 
The small farmer needs money to carry on his business. His 
security does not command the confidence of capitalists and 
the transactions are usually for such small amounts that 
only local money lenders will take the trouble to make 
these small loans, imposing whatever terms they choose on 
the helpless borrowers. 

Small loans have been made by rural credit associations 
since their organization in October 1916 but in every associ- 
ation many requests cannot be met for lack of funds. It is 
the policy of the Government to keep these associations 
absolutely independent and self sustaining. The organizing 
staff is being maintained by the Government in order to 
create and maintain interest by explaining the purposes and 
methods of cooperation. While grateful for the help given 
by many public spirited men to organize and advance this 
new idea it must be frankly stated that rural credit cannot 

149 



150 APPENDIX C 

as yet be classed as a popular movement in the sense of 
being " by the people and of the people." The cooperation 
of educated young men and women is sadly lacking. The 
false modesty of not working in this movement until regu- 
larly appointed is all wrong. Every man, woman, and child 
is hereby appointed as a "committee of one'* to understand 
rural credit and then to explain it to everybody — every- 
where, until* real local interest in their own progress is 
developed in every community. This is real cooperation. 

There are three ways open for these associations to in- 
crease their working capital: (1) by selling more shares, 
(2) by borrowing from capitalists and banks, and (3) by 
receiving deposits from members and non-members. Every 
effort is being made to sell more shares but the small farmers 
have no surplus money, in fact all are borrowers and the 
capital they have paid in represents a sacrifice. Borrowing 
for agricultural purposes from mercantile banks is next to 
impossible, owing to existing rules. Capitalists can loan all 
the money they have on city real estate directly under their 
observation. Therefore each association must seek to create 
depositors to enlist the money now unused and urge people 
to become thrifty and invest their savings in agriculture. — 
This is the way to solid success. 

The following pages clearly explain the theory and practice 
of saving and of putting the savings at work to do good: 

"Thrift lies at the very foundation of material success. 
It is the companion of saving, full brother of frugality, first 
aid to prudence and economy. 

The nations of the world that have prospered owe their 
progress to thrift, because the sum of small savings forms the 
unshakable fabric of national credit. 

There is a big difference between saving and hoarding; 
when money is saved and employed for a definite purpose, 
it becomes the most constructive agency of human progress. 

The money that a miser puts away at the bottom of a 
trunk is inert wealth, and accomplishes nothing save the 



SAVING AND INVESTING 151 

selfish gratification of its owner. To be useful, and to perform 
the best function of saving, money must work so that it 
will make more money. 

The moment you put your funds, no matter how small, 
out to labor in safety, you become an investor, because your 
capital is earning something. 

The great fortunes of the United States originally grew 
out of small accumulation of savings. It was these that 
provided the nucleus which was available at the supreme 
moment when opportunity knocked at the door. 

In addition to thrift, the average man and woman must 
also be taught the value of money, which is just as important 
as the saving sense. If people realized the value of money, 
they would be much less extravagant." 

"An old philosopher remarked ruefully after he wasted 
his small fortune: 'You never know the value of money 
until you ain't got any more.' 

At a time of soaring prices, the average man naturally 
regards the question of saving as somewhat humorous; but 
as a matter of fact, every man and woman who earns any 
sort of wage can save, if he or she only has the desire to do so. 

Spend less than you earn; buy for cash; and keep some 
account of what you earn and spend. Unfurl these maxims 
from the very mast head of your life and you are not likely 
to know want or care. More than this, they mean, when 
properly followed, a competency of some kind for old age, 
or at that time of hfe when disease, accident or other mis- 
fortune removes the means of earning a livelihood. 

It is not the amount of money that you save, but the 
fact that you have begun to save, that invests the whole 
act with a certain moral influence, which properly encouraged 
becomes stronger and stronger all the time. 

The way to save lies through order. Apply the same 
intelligent effort to your money that you expend on the 
time, energy or material with which you work. 

The only way to save successfully is to keep constantly 



152 APPENDIX C 

at it. It IS very much like exercise. A man who exercises 
violently one day and then remains idle two weeks is at a 
disadvantage, rather than at an advantage, when he starts 
to exercise again. You can very easily get the saving habit. 
Instinct is strong in the human race. All it needs is proper 
encouragement. 

Nothing so helps to fix the habit of thrift and saving as 
to have a definite rule set down for yourself. This is where 
the Postal Savings Bank and Rural Credit Deposits come in. 
Many people have found it a good rule to ask themselves 
when they receive their pay, 'How much of this can I save?* 
in all likelihood some part of it can be spared to swell the 
savings account. 

It is a little understood fact that money really works. 
Many people never become prosperous, simply because they 
do not understand this important fact." 

A peso is hke the proverbial acorn. If you plant it right 
and leave it alone, the results are sometimes amazing. 
When Benjamin Franklin said that " Money can beget money 
and its offspring can beget more," he was merely telling 
what compound interest does. 

It is possible for every one to deposit some money with rural 
credit associations, by adopting a system of setting apart 
that portion of his or her income which can be spared, and 
by considering this as money saved against the day of need. 

The following quotations will help you to a right decision: 

The way to material success in life is simple. The man 
who sets a straight course and refuses to deviate from it; 
who lives on less than he makes, is bound to build up a 
comfortable fortune to retire on when his business days are 
over. — S. W, Straus. 

If you want to succeed, save. This is true not so much 
because of the value of the money which the young man who 
saves accumulates, but because of the infinitely greater 
value the system and organization which the practice of 
saving introduces into his life. This result of the saving 



SAVING AND INVESTING 153 

habit is not generally nor properly appreciated. — Marshall 
Field. 

The saving of money usually means the saving of a man. 
It means cutting off indulgences or avoiding vicious habits. 
The little difference between what you earn and what you 
spend is power. It often measures the distance between 
success and failure. — 0. <S. Marden. 

Thrift requires that money should be used, not abused — 
that it should be honestly earned and economically em- 
ployed. — Samuel Smiles. 

No boy ever became great as a man who did not in his 
youth learn to save money. — John Wanamaker. 

If the young man ever expects to succeed in business he 
must be economical. No matter how small the sum the 
boy or young man is receiving, he should always save a 
portion of his income. — Henry C. Lytton. 

I know of no greater independence than this thing of 
having a little lump sum of money put away, be it ever so 
small — a sum that is kept in reserve and only in extreme 
instances drawn upon. — Daniel Barnes. 

Economy is near to the keystone of character and success. 
A boy that is taught to save his money will rarely be a bad 
man or a failure; the man who saves will rise in his trade 
or profession steadily; this is inevitable. — William E. 
Gladstone. 

The man who lives within his means and regularly and 
systematically lays aside part of his earnings, and puts this 
surplus where it will work for him as unceasingly and as 
faithfully as he worked once for it, has acquired a habit of 
no small import in the building of his character and the 
carving of his future. — W. H. Kniffen. 

You think your "little*' is not worth saving; but I have 
noticed that the cigar man and the theater man and the 
soda water man have such a high opinion of your "little" 
that each is glad to get his hands on just a small fraction 
of it, in order that he may carry it to his bank and have it 



154 APPENDIX C 

placed to his account. I suppose it is all the same to the 
bank — your little is going there anyway — but, say ! if it is 
going there anyway, would it not be better to carry it there 
yourself, and have it placed to your credit? — Edward L, 
Pell. 

THRIFT 

Without me no man has ever achieved success, nor has 
any nation ever become great. 

I have been the bedrock of every successful career, and 
the cornerstone of every fortune. 

All the world knows me and most of the world heeds my 
warning. 

The poor may have me as well as the rich. 

My power is limitless, my application boundless. 

He who possesses me has contentment in the present and 
surety for the future. 

I am of greater value than pearls, rubies and diamonds. 

Once you have me, no man can take me away. 

I lift my possessor to higher planes of living, increase his 
earning power, and bring to realization the hopes of his life. 

I make a man well dressed, well housed, and well fed. 

I insure absolutely against the rainy day. 

I drive want and doubt and care away. 

I guarantee those who possess me prosperity and success. 

I have exalted those of low degree and those of high degree 
have found me a helpful friend. 

To obtain me you need put out no capital but personal 
effort, and on all you invest in me I guarantee dividends 
that last through life and after. 

I am as free as air. 

I am yours if you will take me. 

I am thrift. 



SAVING AND INVESTING 155 

DETAILS OF DEPOSITING YOUR SAVINGS 

With the object of explaining in outhne how the small (or 
large) savings, which you are urged to invest, will be put to 
work in the 410 Rural Credit Associations existing on De- 
cember 1, 1919, the following details will be read with interest 
and profit by every one who is ambitious to advance and also 
to see agriculture prosper. Money must be made available 
on reasonable terms to the small farmers who must have 
capital with which to grow the food which stands between 
you and hunger. They ask for no gifts or charity. They 
merely ask for access to loans on conditions more reasonable 
than the heartless usurers exact. 

The interest paid by Rural Credit Associations on deposits 
is on a new plan: For every F3.75 deposited T5 will be paid 
in five years; for every F7.50 deposited Pi will be paid; for 
P15 they will pay P20; for P37.50 they will pay P50; and 
for P75 they will pay ?100 in five years. Only these five 
denominations are in use; the reason is to avoid the cost of 
printing more than these five Cash Deposit Certificates. 

The operation is very interesting as will be seen by the 
following : 

FOR THE DEPOSITOR 

F7.50 deposited in 1919. 
.45 interest at 6 per cent. 

7.95 capital in 1920. 
.48 interest. 



8.43 capital in 1921. 
.51 interest. 

8.94 capital in 1922. 
.54 interest. 



9.48 capital in 1923. 
.56 interest. 



10,04 total capital and interest in five years. 



156 APPENDIX C 

FOR THE ASSOCIATION 

T7.50 received in 1919. 

.75 interest collected at 10 per cent. 



8.25 capital in 1920. 
.82 interest collected. 



9.07 capital in 1921. 
.90 interest collected. 



9.97 capital in 1922. 
.99 interest collected. 



10.96 capital in 1923. 
1.09 interest collected. 



12.05 capital and interest gained in five years. 

These deposits can be withdrawn at any time on thirty 
days' notice at a surrender value which includes interest for 
the time the money was on deposit. The transfer of the 
holder to another town will make no difference as the Central 
Office is in control of all Deposit Certificates. 

The advantages are very justly divided. The small farmers 
get the use of the money, the depositor gets F2.50 plus his 
original F7.50, and the association gains F2 with which to 
meet any unexpected losses of money remaining idle between 
loans. 

LibeHy Bonds. — When Uncle Sam needed money for the 
enormous daily expenses occasioned by the World War he 
borrowed from his friends and issued "promissory notes" 
known as Liberty Bonds. Now that this war is over it is 
suggested that these same Liberty Bonds be put to work a 
second time to furnish capital for our small farmers. This 
does not appear so dramatic as the stirring calls of war but 



SAVING AND INVESTING 157 

it is just as heroic and patriotic because it helps supply our 
country with food by making agriculture more prosperous. 
This capital will furnish work animals, seeds, and implements. 

You are therefore invited to send your Liberty Bond hy 
registered mail to the Director of Agriculture, Manila; he will 
sell it to the National Bank and send the total proceeds to 
the Rural Credit Association you designate. If you have 
no special association selected he will select a needy associ- 
ation. You will receive a Liberty Bond Deposit Certificate 
for P130, payable five years from date. 

In other words, your Liberty Bond has twenty years to 
run and earns 4J per cent interest. By this plan you will 
get F130 for it in five years. The 10 per cent charged as 
interest to the members of associations will in these five 
years pay the ?30 interest, and will also pay the discount 
for cashing the bond at the bank and will still leave a profit 
to the association. 

These details are given so that you may be able to explain 
the subject clearly to those you associate with by showing 
the soimd business principles that make this plan safe. 

It is well for every one to lay by some part of his income 
against the proverbial "rainy day," old age, etc. If these 
savings are wisely invested they will also earn you more 
money. Our farmers are suflfering much because of lack of 
the small amounts necessary to carry on their work and these 
Rural Credit Associations are providing it on the lines of 
self-help and self-development, and will thus inevitably grow 
in importance if they have a larger capital. 



158 



APPENDIX C 





Bureau of Education, Manila, P. I. 
A typical barrio school garden. 




Bureau <<]' Education, Manila, P. l. 



A boy with his poultry project. 



SAVING AND INVESTING 



159 




160 APPENDIX C 



CENTRAL BANKS 



There were 410 incorporated Rural Credit Associations in 
the Philippines on December 1, 1919, with a total capital of 
approximately F600,000, paid in by over 50,000 members. 
While this is very encouraging and shows remarkable progress 
since the first association was organized in October 1916, the 
fact remains that every association has more applicants for 
loans from members than can be met with its present funds. 

The fact is that nearly all members joined in order to 
borrow — not to invest capital because every peso they have 
has other calls on it than investing in shares, except to help 
establish a village bank from which to borrow the small 
capital needed. It is true that in many instances public 
spirited men and women have bought some shares simply 
to help a good movement to get on its feet. They do not 
expect to become borrowers. 

Really, our very success has become our embarrassment. 
We increase our members, each with a few pesos invested 
in shares. We morally obligate ourselves to loan a reason- 
able sum to these laborious farmers on their approved 
security. Our problem is to create the amount of cash the 
farmer must have above the share investment he has made. 

In over thirty nations this same problem was encountered 
and solved by organizing Central Banks whose only function 
is to loan money to associations which have more applications 
for loans than they can supply. In practice their operation 
resembles that of a wholesale dealer who supplies a hundred 
or more small stores with goods to be retailed to the numer- 
ous customers of each store. The small dealer supplies 
sufficient guarantee to the wholesale dealer and then exacts 
sufficient security from the customer he serves and whose 
character and standing he knows. Central Banks are 
established in centers where from 20 to 100 Rural Credit 
Associations affiliate, each buying at least one share of 



SAVING AND INVESTING 161 

FIOO. The P20,000, or more, cash capital with which the 
Central Bank begins, is subscribed by pubUc-spirited persons 
in that province who are willing to patriotically invest their 
capital at about 8 per cent per annum in a useful institution. 
These shareholders elect their board of managers, who 
appoint inspectors. These inspectors visit the associations 
and carefully investigate the guarantee any association offers 
as security for a F5,000 or F10,000 loan. If satisfactory, 
the association has a credit on the books of the Central 
Bank for a certain sum, against which it can draw as funds 
are needed above what the association has on hand. 

Central Banks simply accept the safe guarantee of an 
association, which has but a small sum in cash, and loans 
more working capital on the united security of the members. 
This is a safe and reasonable plan, with which to build up 
solid financial institutions. The small farmer is taught his 
responsibility to use the borrowed money wisely and repay 
it promptly to his association. The association is taught 
how to secure more working capital on such approved 
security as its members have, and that its standing and 
credit for future loans will depend on the promptness and 
cheerfulness with which former obhgations with the Central 
Bank have been met. 

The mistake is sometimes made by well-intentioned 
persons of expecting Rural Credit Associations to regenerate 
agriculture and change human nature. These associations 
do not supply activity to the indolent nor financial aid to 
gamblers. They do not rectify the stupidity of the wrong 
use of money. They exist to unite worthy, industrious 
farmers who by intelligent cooperation can unitedly secure 
working capital on their combined security. They form a 
brotherhood. They advise and help one another to better 
their condition and in the same sense that they start with a 
small capital which is increased as the plan is better under- 
stood, so morally they grow as the sense of personal obli- 
gation, community spirit, and national progress is developed. 



162 APPENDIX C 

Rural Credit Associations are not intended to do a general 
banking business nor to make loans for large sums for 
permanent improvements or for a long term of years. It 
is enough that they strive to furnish the small capital needed 
by their humble members. The large land owners and 
their large requests legitimately belong to the National 
Bank and other capitalists with large funds to invest. In 
fact when the small farmer graduates into a higher financial 
grade he will avail himself of these higher financial helps. 

It would be a calamity to mix the large loans and small 
loans m one institution. The small man would certainly be 
neglected by any institution foisted on him by outsiders. 
Far better let him have the "apprenticeship period" of 
struggle for funds in his own association, managed by his 
OTO class. They will thus learn the value of money, how 
difficult It IS to get, and will appreciate it more when their 
own Central Banks make it available. 

Emerson said, '^ Money is of no value; it cannot spend 
Itself. All depends on the skill of the spender." If this is 
true, training people how to spend money is just as im- 
portant, or even more so, than money itself. 



SAVING AND INVESTING 163 

ESSENTIALS OF COOPERATION 

COOPERATION CAN ONLY FLOURISH IN AN ATMOS- 
PHERE OF SELF-RELIANCE; OF PRIVATE INITIATIVE AND 
OF PERSONAL ENDEAVOR. THE MOTIVE POWER MUST 
BE PRODUCED FROM WITHIN AND NO EXTERNAL MACHIN- 
ERY CAN REPLACE IT. THESE ELEMENTS MUST BE PRE- 
SERVED INTACT. ON THE OTHER HAND, CREDIT IS A VITAL 
MATTER AND THE FAILURE OF ANY COOPERATIVE SOCIETY, 
WHETHER FROM SLACKNESS, IGNORANCE, IMPRUDENCE, 
OR DISHONESTY AMONG ANY OF ITS MEMBERS, CANNOT 
BE REGARDED AS AN ISOLATED MISFORTUNE. IT MUST 
PROVE DETRIMENTAL IN A GREATER OR LESS DEGREE 
TO THE INTERESTS OF ALL OTHER SOCIETIES WHICH HAVE 
ANY POINT OF CONTACT WITH THE DEFAULTER AND TO 
THE GOOD REPUTE OF THE CAUSE OF COOPERATION ITSELF. 
NOW, EVEN HONESTY AND SOLVENCY ARE NOT IN THEM- 
SELVES SUFFICIENT TO ESTABLISH CREDIT. THERE MUST 
BE A TANGIBLE AND CONCURRENT GUARANTEE AND THIS 
MUST BE PROVIDED IN SOME FORM OR OTHER BY A SYSTEM 
OF SUPERVISION AND AUDIT THROUGH A CENTRAL BANK 
AGENCY RECOGNIZED AT ONCE AS TRUSTWORTHY AND 
RESPONSIBLE IN ITSELF AND HAVING AN ORGANIC RELA- 
TION WITH THE COOPERATIVE IDEA. 

LORD WILLINGDON, BOMBAY, INDIA 



APPENDIX D 

^_^ AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION BILL 

FIFTH PHILIPPINE LEGISLATURE ) 

First Session | 

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 

Introduced by 

An Act to Provide for the Promotion of Agricultural 
Education; to Provide for Cooperation with the 
Provinces in the Promotion of such Education in 
Agriculture and Home Economics; and to Ap- 
propriate Money and Regulate its Expenditure 

Be it enacted by the House of Representatives and the 
Senate of the PhiHppine Legislature assembled and by 
the authority of the same: 

Sec. 1. There is hereby annually appropriated, out of 
any money m the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, 
the sums provided in sections 2, 3, and 4 of this Act, to be 
expended as hereinafter provided by the Director of Edu- 
cation subject to the approval of the Secretary of Public 
Instruction, for the purpose of cooperating with the provinces 
in the establishment, in the equipment, and in the operation 
of agricultural schools and for the preparation within the 
Philippine Islands of supervisors of agricultural projects 
and of teachers for agricultural schools. 

Sec. 2. That for the purpose of cooperating with the 
provinces in the establishment and in the development of 
agricultural schools subject to the provisions of this Act, 
there shall be available on the first day of January for the 
fiscal year of nineteen hundred and twenty the sum of two 
hundred fifty thousand pesos (P250,000), and an equal 
amount annually thereafter for each of the three succeeding 
years: Provided, That the allotment of funds to any province 

164 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION BILL 165 

shall be fifty thousand pesos (P50,000) for each agricultural 
school to be established or operated under the provisions of 
this Act. 

Sec. 3. For the purpose of cooperating with the provinces 
in equipping and in operating agricultural schools, there shall 
be available for the use of the provinces for the fiscal year 
ending December thirty-first, nineteen hundred and twenty, 
the sum of two hundred thousand pesos (P200,000.00) ; 
for the fiscal year ending December thirty-first, nineteen 
hundred twenty-one, the sum of three hundred thousand 
pesos (P300,000); for the fiscal year ending December 
thirty-first, nineteen hundred and twenty-two, and annually 
thereafter, the sum of at least four hundred thousand pesos 
(P400,000). Said sums shall be available for expenditure 
on the first day of January of each year and shall be allotted 
annually to the provinces in proportion to the provincial 
funds provided for the agricultural schools receiving aid 
from this Act, allotting one peso for each peso of provincial 
money provided for the fiscal year for which the allotment 
is made: Provided, that the allotment of funds to any 
province shall be not less than five thousand pesos (P5000) 
nor greater than fifteen thousand pesos (P15,000) for any 
fiscal year for each agricultural school established, equipped, 
or operated under the provisions of this Act, And, provided, 
further, That the funds thus appropriated and allotted 
shall accrue to a special provincial fund in each province 
to be known as the " Provincial School Fund," from which 
disbursements shall be made upon vouchers duly approved 
by the division superintendent of schools or his representative. 

Sec. 4. For the purpose of training within the Philip- 
pine Islands supervisors of agricultural projects and teachers 
of agricultural schools provided for by the provisions of 
this Act, there is hereby appropriated for the fiscal year 
ending December thirty-first, nineteen hundred and twenty, 
and annually thereafter, the sum of one hundred thousand 



166 APPENDIX D 

pesos (F100,000) to establish scholarships. These scholar- 
ships shall be apportioned by the Director of Education, 
subject to the approval of the Secretary of Public Instruc- 
tion, and appointments to scholarships shall be made by 
him or his representatives in a manner best suited to the 
promotion of the purposes of this Act. Each recipient of a 
scholarship shall be entitled to reimbursement of travehng 
expenses from place of residence to place where he is to 
receive training to his respective station on completion of 
the course specified and while pursuing the course of in- 
struction shall be entitled to lodging and subsistence. AU 
such expenditures shall be payable from the sum thus 
appropriated. 

Sec. 5. Each scholarship appointee shall sign an agree- 
ment to return, upon the completion of the prescribed 
course of instruction, to his own province or to such other 
province as may be decided upon by the Director of Edu- 
cation and to serve for a period of time equal to that en- 
joyed by him in study under the privileges of this Act. 

Sec. 6. That in order to receive the benefits of the ap- 
propriations herem provided, the provincial board of any 
province shall guarantee to include annuaUy in the provincial 
budget an appropriation from provincial funds for each 
school established a sum equal to or greater than the mini- 
mum amount provided for in section 3 of this Act, and shall 
secure for the school a suitable tract of land acceptable to 
the Director of Education and shall agree to meet such other 
requirements as may be specified by the Director of Edu- 
cation subject to the approval of the Secretary of Public 
Instruction. 

Sec 7. Any province accepting the benefits of either 
or both of the respective funds herein appropriated shall 
not be deprived for any year of the regular annual assistance 
as long as the conditions prescribed in this Act are fully 
met by the province: Provided, That the Secretary of 
Public Instruction may refuse to release the aid aUotted if 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION BILL 167 

it is ascertained that the province is not using or preparing 
to use, the money in accordance with the provisions of this 
Act. 

Sec. 8. Schools receiving the benefits of this Act shall 
be administered and conducted as a part of the pubUc 
school system in conformity with the School Law. 

This Act shall take effect on its passage. 

Explanatory Statement 

There are many reasons why the proposed law is needed. 
Among these is the urgent necessity for providing practical 
training in agriculture and home economics for farm boys 
and girls during the period of their hves when the principal 
ideals of life are being formed. The proposed law provides 
for ample instruction in agriculture in all grades, making it 
possible for boys to be educated under conditions which 
will create a knowledge of and respect for practical farm 
work. Not only will the boys know farm work, but they 
will finish the public schools with a desire to remain on the 
farms and actually engage in farm activities. The future of 
other agricultural agencies is also assured because schools 
operated under the provisions of this law will in a few years 
be graduating each year a thousand or more intelligent 
farmers. These graduates will be equipped either to return 
to the farms, thereby providing intelligent men to become 
community leaders and to direct activities for the general 
welfare of the agricultural classes, or to attend the College 
of Agriculture, thereby assuring that institution an ample 
number of students well fitted to proceed with the study of 
the scientific phases of agriculture. 

This is constructive legislation, providing funds not only 
for establishing agricultural schools, but for developing 
these schools from year to year. It makes possible a nation- 
wide program of agricultural education, bridging over the 
gap between the public schools and the College of Agri- 



168 APPENDIX D 

culture. It makes possible the turning out each year of 
several hundred educated farmers who will remain on the 
farms to cultivate the land. 

The proposed bill combines the commendable idea of re* 
leasing funds annually for improvements and the assurance 
of future development, as is exemplified in the Smith- 
Hughes Bill, now conceded to be one of the most progressive 
pieces of legislation ever enacted for agricultural and in- 
dustrial education in the United States. A continuing ap- 
propriation of this kind makes it possible to formulate a 
program capable of relieving the present critical situation, 
which will reoccur from time to time as long as effective 
remedial action is not taken. 

Close cooperation between Insular and provincial au- 
thorities is provided, which strengthens the autonomy of 
the provinces and arouses the maximum local interest which 
is so essential to the success of agricultural undertakings. 

This bill aims to extend the garden work of the schools 
by providing facili ties for practical farm and home economic 
instruction for the maximum number of students as rapidly 
as it is possible to train the needed personnel. It is estimated 
that forty provinces will take advantage of the provisions 
of this Act within three years after its passage. Adequate 
facilities will then be pro vided to give a practical agricultural 
education to a large percentage of public school boys and 
girls. The definite future support outlined is the most 
important feature of the legislation sought. It is an effective 
solution of agricultural education problems. 

Funds are made available for developing an efficient 
Filipino personnel for the agricultural school and for super- 
vising agricultural projects under the Secretary of Agri- 
culture and Natural Resources. It is estimated that ample 
provisions are made for sufficient scholarships to permit of 
each year having under training some 40 persons for super- 
vising agricultural projects of the Department of Agri- 



AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION BELL 169 

culture and Natural Resources in addition to those for teach- 
ing positions in the agricultural schools. This measure 
assures some provisions being made for the education of the 
adult farmer, which is an important factor in any complete 
program of agricultural education. 

Making effective the various provisions of this Bill will 
call for the following Insular expenditures for agricultural 
education : 

1920 — F550,000; 1921 — F650,000; 1922 — P750,000; 
1923 — P750,000; 1924 — F500,000; 1925 and annually 
thereafter at least F500,000. 

The allotment of these sums as specified in the provisions 
of this Bill will make it obligatory for the provinces to make 
available for the same purposes the following sums : 

1920 — F200,000; 1921 — F300,000; 1922 — F400,000; 
1923 — F400,000; 1924 — ^400,000; 1925 and annually 
thereafter at least F400,000. 

Note. This rule bill was first introduced by the chairman of the 
Committee on PubHc Instruction in the Lower House in the regular 
session of the fourth Philippine Legislature. It was re-introduced 
in the first session of the fifth Philippine Legislature. It was also 
a subject included in the Governor-General's message to the special 
session immediately following the close of the regular session of 
the fifth Philippine Legislature. 



APPENDIX E 

BUREAU OF EDUCATION 

Manila, August 3. 1918 
CIRCULAR) 

No. 43, s. 1918.) 

BARRIO SCHOOL SANITATION 

To Division Superintendents: 

1. All instruction in hygiene and sanitation, direct and 
indirect, to be effective, must result in improved physical 
efficiency and better sanitary living. To barrio schools is 
given great opportunity for community uplift. Especially 
is this true along sanitary lines. Since it is the belief that 
barrio schools and barrio teachers can best render effective 
service in practical sanitation by concentration upon a few 
lines, it is desired that special attention be given this year 
to these two : 

Providing barrio schools with boiled drinking 
water in clean, well-covered jars or vessels, prefer- 
ably with faucets. 

Providing each barrio school with two fairly 
substantial outhouses, one for boys and one for 
girls. 

2. Since all barrios are not yet provided with artesian 
wells from which pure druiking water can be secured, it is 
important to teach the necessity of boiling all drinking 
water. It is believed that, if schools are provided with 
boiled drinking water and the teachers and pupils habitually 
drink such water, it will not be long before boiled water for 
drinking purposes will be used in the homes in barrio com- 
munities. Attention should, of course, be given to cleanli- 
ness and proper handling of cups used. 

3. With respect to outhouses, attention is invited to 
blueprints which the Bureau of Education sent out a few 

170 



BARRIO SCHOOL SANITATION 171 

years ago, and to the Philippine Craftsman, Vol. IV, page 
239, which gives sketches of model sanitary outhouses for 
barrio schools. 

4. In connection with the annual report of division 
superintendents, comment should be made relative to progress 
along the line of providing barrio schools with boiled drink- 
ing water and sanitary outhouses. It is hoped that, by the 
end of this year, all barrio schools will be provided with 
boiled drinking water in proper vessels, and all barrio schools 
having permanently owned sites will be provided with two 
fairly substantial outhouses properly kept clean and sanitary. 

Camilo Osias, 
Acting Director of Education 



INDEX 



Acceleration, problem of, 110-111. 

Adult schools, 138. 

Esthetic training, 34. 

Agricultural clubs, 20, 131-132. 

Agricultural Education Bill, 164- 
170. 

Agriculture, as a universal occu- 
pation, 6; teaching of, 72-73, 
95-99; auxiliary studies, 74. 

Alabama, scheme used in, for rating 
country schools, 118. 

Animal husbandry, advance in, 132. 

Arbor Days, 20, 96, 135; activ- 
ities of, 133. 

Art, improvement in indoor, 139. 

Athletic meets, 99, 137. 

Athletics, in barrio school curric- 
ulum, 71-72. 

Atkinson, Fred W., quoted, 64. 

Babies, instruction in care of, 73. 

Bacnotan, school building in, 91. 

Banban, barrio of, 90. 

Barrios, total number of, 1; statis- 
tics of population, 2; occupa- 
tions in, 6; problems of life, 
8-9; general conditions in, 40- 
42; vitalizing agencies in life 
of, 129-140. 

Bayang, schools in, 93. 

Better Babies' Contest, 136. 

Betts, G. H., quoted, 3, 30, 49-50. 

Bird Day, 135. 

Bonifacio, Andres, quoted, 85-86. 

Boys, creed for, 37; gardening by, 
131. 

Buildings, school, 12-14, 88, 90-91. 

Cattle raising, statistics of, 98. 
Cebu, city of, 2. 
Central Banks, 160-162. 
Citizenship, training in, 34. 
Civico-educational lectures, 136. 
Civics, teaching of, 69-70. 
Classes, organization of, 106-107; 



problem of overcrowded, 107- 

108. 
Community, service of, to schools, 

52. 
Consolidation of schools, 16-17. 
Contests, . school, 131-132, 137. 
Cooking, teaching of, 20, 50, 83, 131. 
Cooperation, essentials of, 163. 
Corn, score card for judging, 97. 
Corn campaigns, 96-97. 
Corn growing, statistics of, 98. 
Cost of education, 105. 
Courses of study, industrial, 82-84. 

See Curriculum. 
Creed, of barrio boy, 37; of barrio 

girl, 88; for teachers, 55-56. 
Creelman, President, school creeds 

by, 36. 
Crocheting, courses in, 83. 
Cubberley, E. P., The Portland 

Survey, quoted, 63-64. 
Curriculum in barrio schools, 19-20, 

58-76. 

Dean, A. D., quoted, 86. 
Decoration, art and, 139. 
Denmark, schools in, 73; inspira- 
tion from example of, 129-130. 
Dewey, John, quoted, 43, 45. 
Distribution of schools, 105-106. 
Domestic science, courses in, 72-73. 
Duke, E. A., quoted, 71-72. 
Dutton, Professor, quoted, 60. 

Education of barrio children, 26-39; 

cost of, 105. 
Elementary curriculum, 60-61. 
Embroidery, lessons in, 50, 83. 
Equipment of barrio schools, 15. 

Farming, course of study in, 62; 

instruction in, 98. 
Farms, statistics of, 6. 
Food, preparation of, 73. 



173 



174 



INDEX 



Food-production campaigns, 134- 
135. 

Formosa, per capita cost of educa- 
tion in, 105. 

Fruit raising, courses in, 74. 

Fruit-tree growing, 96, 132-133. 

Funds for schools, 21-24. 

Garden Days, 20, 95, 135. 
Gardening, training in school and 

home, 73; activities in, 95, 98, 

131. 
Girls, creed for, 38; cooking and 

sewing by, 131. 
Good citizenship, lectures on, 136. 
Grover, E. O., creed by, 55-56. 

Hall, Otis, quoted, 49-50. 
Hat making, teaching of, 92. 
Health Day, 135. 
Hog raising, statistics of, 98, 132. 
Home projects, 99. 
Homesteads, securing of, 145-148. 
Horticultural work, 96. 
Hospitality, Filipino, 40. 
Houses for teachers, 53, 100-101. 
Household arts course of study, 63. 
Housekeeping, courses in, 63, 83. 
Hygiene and sanitation, teaching of, 
70-71. 

Illinois, plan used in, for rating 
country schools, 117-118. 

Imugan, barrio of, 94-95. 

Industrial work, courses in, 72-75, 
82-84, 92-99, 131. 

Instruction in barrio schools, 18-19. 

Intermediate course of study, 62. 

Investing, saving and, 149-163. 

Java, per capita cost of education 

in, 105. 
Joyner, J. Y., quoted, 19-20. 

Lace making, courses in, 83. 
Land Law, provisions of, 145-148. 
Landscape gardening, improvement 
in. 139. 



Lectures, civico-educationaI» 99, 

136. 
Libraries, development of, 138. 
Literary activities of schools, 137. 
Longos, barrio of, 94. 

Malay States, cost of education in, 

105. 
Meyto, barrio of, 92. 
Mindanao and Sulu, Department of, 

101. 
Mindoro, supervision systematized 

in, 118-121. 
Monroe, Paul, quoted, 58-59; on 

industrial work in Philippine 

schools, 83. 
Musical organizations, 137. 

Nature study, 64-65. 

Normal course for teachers, 54. 

Nurseries, fruit-tree, 96, 133. 

Oregon, standardizing plan in, 116. 
Organization of schools, 17-18; 

problems of, 104-113. 
Overcrowded classes, 107-108. 

Pangasinan, efforts made in, for 

eflSciency in school work, 122. 
Parents' meetings, 137. 
Patten, S. N., quoted, 20-21, 30. 
Payne, Dr., quoted, 60. 
Pennsylvania, standardizing scheme 

used in, 115. 
Pensions for teachers, 55. 
Physical instruction, 34. 
Physical welfare work, 91-92. 
Poultry raising, instruction in, 74; 

figures regarding, 98, 132. 
Prevocational school work, 79. 
Primary course of study, 60-61, 64- 

66. 
Promotion, problem of, 110-111. 
Pyramidal organization of schools, 

106-107. 

Reading circles, barrio, 138. 
Redistricting of provinces, 112. 



INDEX 



175 



Retardation, problem of, 110-111. 

Ritchie-Purcell, Sanitation and Hy- 
giene for the Tropics, quoted, 70. 
Rizal Day celebration, 135-136. 
Rural Credit Associations, 160-162. 

Salaries of teachers, 46-47. 

Sanitation in barrio schools, 16, 50; 
instruction in, 70-71; Depart- 
ment Circular on, 170-171. 

Saving and investing, 149-163. 

Schools, improvement of, 10-25; 
curriculum in, 58-76; distri- 
bution of, 105-106; standard- 
ization of, 114-128; adult, 138. 

School sites, discussion of, 14-15, 
88-89. 

Score card, for judging corn, 97; 
for rating country schools, 115. 

Seerley, H. H., quoted, 86-87. 

Sewing, lessons in, 50, 83, 131. 

Snedden, David, quoted, 60. 

Social activities of schools, 137. 

Social aspects of barrio education, 
99-101. 

"Split session" scheme for classes, 
107-108. 

Standardizing barrio schools, 114- 
122; proposed requirements for, 
122-128. 

Subjects of courses of study, 61-63. 
See Curriculum. 

Supervision of schools, 17-18; prob- 
lems connected with, 112-113. 

Taxation for education, 24, 111. 
Teachers in barrio schools, 40-46; 



salaries of, 46-47; outline of 
duties, 48-49; four proposi- 
tions for improvement of con- 
ditions, 52-55; creed for, 55-56; 
importance of problem of, 100- 
101; houses for, 100-101; teach- 
ing of thrift by, 102. 

Thrift, instruction in, 102; Govern- 
ment circular pertaining to, 
149-163. 

Training of teachers, 54. 

Tree planting, statistics of, 98. 

Unit system of construction, 13. 
Uplift, the school an institution 
for, 42. 

Vitalizing agencies of barrio life, 

129-140. 
Vocational education, 34-35, 77-87. 
Vocational guidance. General Office 

instructions regarding, 81-82. 



Washington, Booker T., quoted, 16. 

Weaving, instruction in, 66, 83. 

Welles, W. S., article by, on "Use of 
Raw Materials in Teaching Ag- 
riculture," 74-75. 

West Virginia, score card used in, 
115. 

White, Frank R., Director of Ed- 
ucation, quoted, 66-67. 

Wilson, Woodrow, quoted, 140. 

Wood, Thomas D., on health of 
country children, 71. 



Cartography of the Philippine Islands 

HODGSON'S MAP OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

Compiled by Caspar W. Hodgson. Engraved on stone by 
A. Briesemeister. 42'' X 59". Printed in six colors. 

This map embodies the results of political changes and explorations made 
since the American occupation, and is based on original sources. In its 
preparation, the maps and other data of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, of 
the United States Navy and War Departments, and of the various bureaus 
of the Philippine Government, all existing Spanish and American maps of 
recognized value, and sketch maps and notes of explorers of the unmapped 
portions of the Islands were consulted. Before the map was engraved, blue 
prints of the drawings were made and each division superintendent of schools, 
each constabulary officer, and each district engineer in the Islands, was asked 
to correct the details of the region with which he was familiar. Many other 
persons, officers of the United States Army, government officials, and private 
individuals who had special knowledge of the httle known and unmapped 
regions, made corrections in the blue prints. This is the most carefully pre- 
pared and engraved map of the Philippines ever made, and is, therefore, the 
most authoritative map to be obtained at the present time. 

Major-General Leonard Wood, U. S. A : From what I have seen of it, I am 
sure that it is a wonderfully good map, and I appreciate it very much. 

Honorable Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of the Interior, Philippine Islands : 
The portfolio edition of your map is proving invaluable to me on my trips. 

Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, New York: This is the best 
map that has been compiled of the Philippines. . . . The map fills a need 
and will be necessary to all persons and institutions requiring cartographic 
information of the Philippines as we now know them. 

Price by mail, prepaid, of the paper edition is $5.40; of the wall edition, 
cloth backed and mounted on plain sticks, $6.00; of the portfolio edition, cloth 
backed and mounted in buckram portfolio, $7.50. 

HODGSON'S GRAPHIC OUTLINE MAPS. A series of 
six maps in accurate but faint outline, to be used for filling 
in and tracing, in connection with the development of the 
various historical, geographical, and industrial studies of the 
Philippine Islands and adjacent countries. The titles are: 
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A curriculum in tune ivith modern life 

CHILD LIFE AND THE 
CURRICULUM 

By Junius L. Meriam 

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The traditional curriculum is tottering and crumbling. The demand 
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all the ills of elementary education; he does, however, pomt to relief 
Bnd a way out of the beaten path. 

Other features of this book of special help are the following: 

1 Statement outUne for each chapter. 

2 Lists of supplementary readings and general references at 
the ends of chapters. These constitute a good bibliography 
of modem educational literature. 

8 Numerous tables of information relating to causes of 
withdrawals, school subjects and time assignments, dis- 
tribution of grades, books read in different grades. 

4 Outlined curriculum of the University of Missouri Elemen- 
tary School. 

The author not only indicates the possibility of greater service on the 
part of the school; he points the way from the vantage point of substan- 
tial achievement. 

Cloth, xii + 538 pages. Price $3.00. 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, NeW YoRK 

2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago 



Studies in Methods of Teaching in the College I 

COLLEGE TEACHING | 

Edited by Paul Klapper | 

T^HE introduction to this first book on this subject is the | 

work of President Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia | 

University. Thirty-one leading American authorities are I 

the authors of the chapters which deal with every subject in | 

the college curriculum. These were written on the same plan, | 

which makes the volume a unified production. The writers | 

were selected for their scholarship, interest in the teaching | 

phase of the subject, and reputation in the academic world. | 

The book is divided into six parts as follows: | 

The Introductory Studies | 

The Sciences | 

The Social Sciences | 

The Languages and Literatures | 

The Arts | 

Vocational Subjects | 

A treasure of wisdom is stored in the colleges of America. The | 

I teachers in them are the custodians of the knowledge. Impar- | 

I ting this knowledge is the function of these institutions of | 

I higher learning. To do this most effectively is the plan of every | 

I instructor. This book aims to make the college teacher ei?i- | 

I cient in handing down this heritage of knowledge, rich and | 

I vital, that will develop in youth the power of right thinking | 

I and the courage of right living | 

I Dr. Butler writes that *'a careful reading of the book is com- } 

I mended not only to the great army of college teachers and | 

I college students, but to that still greater army of those who, | 

whether as alumni or parents or as citizens, are deeply con- | 

cerned with the preservation of the influence and character | 

of the American college for its effect upon our national Stan- | 

dards of thought and action " | 

[Cloth, xvi +583 pages. Price $4.50. | 

I 

WORLD BOOK COMPANY | 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON, New YoRK | 

2126 Prairie Avenue, Chicago g 

J 



